2011 military intervention in Libya

"Operation Freedom Falcon" redirects here. For the Iraq War battle, see Operation Falcon Freedom.
Military intervention in Libya
Part of the Libyan Civil War

The no-fly zone over Libya as well as bases and warships which were involved in the intervention
Date19 March – 31 October 2011[1]
(7 months, 1 week and 5 days)
LocationLibya
Result Decisive NATO victory
Belligerents

States enforcing UNSC Resolution 1973:

 NATO

 Jordan
 Qatar
 Sweden

 United Arab Emirates

 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya:

Commanders and leaders

Opération Harmattan
France Nicolas Sarkozy
France Alain Juppé
France Adm. Édouard Guillaud
Operation Ellamy
United Kingdom David Cameron
United Kingdom Dr Liam Fox
United Kingdom Gen. David Richards
Operation Mobile
Canada Stephen Harper
Canada Peter MacKay
Canada Lt. Gen. André Deschamps
Operation Odyssey Dawn
United States Barack H. Obama
United States Hillary R. Clinton
United States Robert Gates
United States Gen. Carter Ham
Italy Silvio Berlusconi
Italy Ignazio La Russa
Italy Gen. Claudio Graziano
Operation Unified Protector
NATO Anders Fogh Rasmussen
United States Adm. James G. Stavridis
Canada LtGen. Charles Bouchard
United States LtGen. Ralph Jodice

Italy VAdm. Rinaldo Veri

Libya Muammar Gaddafi  †
[5] Libya Saif al-Islam Gaddafi
(captured 19 November)[6]
Libya Khamis Gaddafi  †
Libya Al-Saadi Gaddafi
Libya Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr  †[5]

Casualties and losses
United Kingdom 1 airman killed in traffic accident in Italy[7][8]
United States 1 USN MQ-8 shot down[9][10]
Netherlands 3 Dutch Naval Aviators captured (later released)[11]
Netherlands 1 Royal Netherlands Navy Lynx captured[11]
United States 1 USAF F-15E crashed (Mechanical failure)[12]
United Arab Emirates 1 UAEAF F-16 damaged upon landing[13]

Libya 5,900 military targets including[14]

  • 600 tanks or armored vehicles
  • 400 artillery or rocket launchers

Libya Unknown number of soldiers killed or wounded (NATO claim)[15]
72 civilians killed[16]
40 civilians killed in Tripoli (Vatican claim)[17]
The US military claimed it had no knowledge of civilian casualties.[18]
Clashes between Libya and the United States

On 19 March 2011, a multi-state NATO-led coalition began a military intervention in Libya, ostensibly to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973. The United Nations Intent and Voting was to have "an immediate ceasefire in Libya, including an end to the current attacks against civilians, which it said might constitute crimes against humanity" ... "imposing a ban on all flights in the country's airspace – a no-fly zone – and tightened sanctions on the Qadhafi regime and its supporters." The resolution was taken in response to events during the Libyan Civil War,[19] and military operations began, with American and British naval forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles,[20] the French Air Force, British Royal Air Force, and Royal Canadian Air Force[21] undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by Coalition forces.[22] French jets launched air strikes against Libyan Army tanks and vehicles.[23][24] The Libyan government response to the campaign was totally ineffectual, with Gaddafi's forces not managing to shoot down a single NATO plane despite the country possessing 30 heavy SAM batteries, 17 medium SAM batteries, 55 light SAM batteries (a total of 400-450 launchers, including 130-150 SA-6 launchers and some SA-8 launchers), and 440-600 short-ranged air-defense guns.[25][26] The official names for the interventions by the coalition members are Opération Harmattan by France; Operation Ellamy by the United Kingdom; Operation Mobile for the Canadian participation and Operation Odyssey Dawn for the United States.[27]

From the beginning of the intervention, the initial coalition of Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar, Spain, UK and US[28][29][30][31][32] expanded to nineteen states, with newer states mostly enforcing the no-fly zone and naval blockade or providing military logistical assistance. The effort was initially largely led by France and the United Kingdom, with command shared with the United States. NATO took control of the arms embargo on 23 March, named Operation Unified Protector. An attempt to unify the military command of the air campaign (whilst keeping political and strategic control with a small group), first failed over objections by the French, German, and Turkish governments.[33][34] On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone, while command of targeting ground units remains with coalition forces.[35][36][37] The handover occurred on 31 March 2011 at 06:00 UTC (08:00 local time). NATO flew 26,500 sorties since it took charge of the Libya mission on 31 March 2011.

Fighting in Libya ended in late October following the death of Muammar Gaddafi, and NATO stated it would end operations over Libya on 31 October 2011. Libya's new government requested that its mission be extended to the end of the year,[38] but on 27 October, the Security Council voted to end NATO's mandate for military action on 31 October.[39]

Proposal for the no-fly zone

Both Libyan officials[40][41][42][43] and international states[44][45][46][47][48] and organizations[19][49][50][51][52][53][54] called for a no-fly zone over Libya in light of allegations that Muammar Gaddafi's military had conducted airstrikes against Libyan rebels in the Libyan Civil War.

Chronology

VOA News report on the United States joining Lebanon, France and United Kingdom to support the no-fly zone.
Libyan anti-government rebels, 1 March 2011
US President Barack Obama addressing the people of the United States about the US intervention in Libya

Enforcement

Coloured in blue are the states that were involved in implementing the no-fly zone over Libya (coloured in green)

Initial NATO planning for a possible no-fly zone took place in late February and early March,[80] especially by NATO members France and the United Kingdom.[81] France and the UK were early supporters of a no-fly zone and had sufficient airpower to impose a no-fly zone over the rebel-held areas, although they might need additional assistance for a more extensive exclusion zone.

The US had the air assets necessary to enforce a no-fly zone, but was cautious about supporting such an action prior to obtaining a legal basis for violating Libya's sovereignty. Furthermore, due to the sensitive nature of military action by the US against an Arab nation, the US sought Arab participation in the enforcement of a no-fly zone.

At a congressional hearing, United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates explained that "a no-fly zone begins with an attack on Libya to destroy the air defences ... and then you can fly planes around the country and not worry about our guys being shot down. But that's the way it starts."[82]

On 19 March, the deployment of French fighter jets over Libya began,[22] and other states began their individual operations. Phase One started the same day with the involvement of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy and Canada.[83]

On 24 March, NATO ambassadors agreed that NATO would take command of the no-fly zone enforcement, while other military operations remained the responsibility of the group of states previously involved, with NATO expected to take control as early as 26 March.[84] The decision was made after meetings of NATO members to resolve disagreements over whether military operations in Libya should include attacks on ground forces.[84] The decision will create a two-level power structure overseeing military operations. In charge politically will be a committee, led by NATO, that includes all states participating in enforcing the no-fly zone, while NATO alone will be responsible for military action.[85] Royal Canadian Air Force Lieutenant-General Charles Bouchard has been appointed to command the NATO military mission.[86]

After the death of Muammar Gaddafi on 20 October 2011, it was announced that the NATO mission would end on 31 October.[87]

Operation names

Before NATO took full command of operations at 06:00 GMT on 31 March 2011, the military intervention in the form of a no-fly zone and naval blockade was split between different national operations:

Forces committed

These are the forces committed in alphabetical order.

The USS Barry (DDG-52) fires a Tomahawk cruise missile, 19 March 2011
Palmarias of the Libyan Army, destroyed by French air force near Benghazi, 19 March
Damage to aircraft shelters at Ghardabiya Airfield near Sirte, 20 March
U.S. Air Force F-16 return to Aviano Air Base in Italy after supporting Operation Odyssey Dawn, 20 March
RAF Tornado GR4 attacks Libyan warship in Al Khums naval base, 20 May 2011
RAF Tornado GR4 targeting Libyan tank, 12 April

Bases committed

A Qatari C-17 transport plane at Incirlik Air Base, Turkey.

Actions by other states

Action by international forces

Civilian losses

14 May: NATO air strike hit a large number of people gathered for Friday prayers in the eastern city of Brega leaving 11 religious leaders dead and 50 others wounded.[186]
24 May: NATO air strikes in Tripoli kill 19 civilians and wound 150, according to Libyan state television.[187]
31 May: Libya claims that NATO strikes have left up to 718 civilians dead.[188]
19 June: NATO air strikes hit a residential house in Tripoli, killing seven civilians, according to Libyan state television.[189]
20 June: A NATO airstrike in Sorman, near Tripoli, killed fifteen civilians, according to government officials.[190] Eight rockets apparently hit the compound of a senior government official, in an area where NATO confirmed operations had taken place.[190]
25 June: NATO strikes on Brega hit a bakery and a restaurant, killing 15 civilians and wounding 20 more, Libyan state television claimed. The report further accused the coalition of "crimes against humanity". The claims were denied by NATO.[191]
28 June: NATO airstrike on the town of Tawergha, 300 km east of the Libyan capital, Tripoli kills eight civilians.[192]
25 July: NATO airstrike on a medical clinic in Zliten kills 11 civilians, though the claim was denied by NATO, who said they hit a vehicle depot and communications center.[193][194]
20 July: NATO attacks Libyan state TV, Al-Jamahiriya. Three journalists killed.[195]
9 August: Libyan government claims 85 civilians were killed in a NATO airstrike in Majer, a village near Zliten. A spokesman confirms that NATO bombed Zliten at 2:34 a.m. on 9 August,[196] but says he was unable to confirm the casualties. Commander of the NATO military mission, Lieutenant General Charles Bouchard says "I cannot believe that 85 civilians were present when we struck in the wee hours of the morning, and given our intelligence. But I cannot assure you that there were none at all".[197]
15 September: Gaddafi spokesman Moussa Ibrahim declares that NATO air strikes killed 354 civilians and wounded 700 others, while 89 other civilians are supposedly missing. He also claims that over 2,000 civilians have been killed by NATO air strikes since 1 September.[198] NATO denied the claims, saying they were unfounded.[199]
2 March 2012: United Nations Human Rights Council release their report about the aftermath of the Libyan civil war, concluding that in total 60 civilians were killed and 55 wounded by the NATO air campaign.[200] In May that same year, Human Rights Watch published a report claiming that at least 72 civilians were killed. [16]

Military losses on the coalition side

The USAF F-15E that crashed over Libya, numbered 91-0304/LN, in Ostrava, Czech Republic, six months before the accident. Both crew members ejected and were rescued.

Reaction

Since the start of the campaign, there have been allegations of violating the limits imposed upon the intervention by Resolution 1973 and by US law. At the end of May 2011, Western troops were captured on film in Libya, despite Resolution 1973 specifically forbidding "a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory".[210] In the article however, it reports that armed Westerners but not Western troops were on the ground.[210]

On 10 June, US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates criticized some of the NATO member nations for their efforts, or lack thereof, to participate in the intervention in Libya. Gates singled out Germany, Poland, Spain, Turkey, and the Netherlands for criticism. He praised Canada, Norway and Denmark, saying that although those three countries had only provided twelve percent of the aircraft to the operation, their aircraft had conducted one-third of the strikes.[211]

On June 24, the US House voted against Joint Resolution 68, which would have authorized continued US military involvement in the NATO campaign for up to one year.[212][213] The majority of Republicans voted against the resolution,[214] with some questioning US interests in Libya and others criticizing the White House for overstepping its authority by conducting a military expedition without Congressional backing. House Democrats were split on the issue, with 115 voting in favor of and 70 voting against. Despite the failure of the President to receive legal authorization from Congress, the Obama administration continued its military campaign, carrying out the bulk of NATO's operations until the overthrow of Gadaffi in October.

On 9 August, the head of UNESCO, Irina Bokova deplored a NATO strike on Libyan State TV, Al-Jamahiriya, that killed 3 journalists and wounded others.[215] Bokova declared that media outlets should not be the target of military activities. On 11 August, after the NATO airstrike on Majer (on 9 August) that allegedly killed 85 civilians, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called on all sides to do as much as possible to avoid killing innocent people.[216]

Responsibility to protect

The military intervention in Libya has been cited by the Council on Foreign Relations as an example of the responsibility to protect policy adopted by the UN at the 2005 World Summit.[217] According to Gareth Evans, "[t]he international military intervention (SMH) in Libya is not about bombing for democracy or Muammar Gaddafi's head. Legally, morally, politically, and militarily it has only one justification: protecting the country's people."[217] However, the Council also noted that the policy had been used only in Libya, and not in countries such as Côte d'Ivoire, undergoing a political crisis at the time, or in response to protests in Yemen.[217] A CFR expert, Stewert Patrick, said that "There is bound to be selectivity and inconsistency in the application of the responsibility to protect norm given the complexity of national interests at stake in...the calculations of other major powers involved in these situations."[217] In January 2012, the Arab Organization for Human Rights, Palestinian Centre for Human Rights and the International Legal Assistance Consortium published a report describing alleged human rights violations and accusing NATO of war crimes.[218]

Criticism

Protest in Belgrade, Serbia on March 26, 2011 against military intervention in Libya
Protest in Minneapolis, United States on April 2, 2011 against US military intervention in Libya

Some critics of Western military intervention suggested that resources—not democratic or humanitarian concerns—were the real impetus for the intervention, among them a journalist of London Arab nationalist newspaper Al-Quds Al-Arabi, the Russian TV network RT and the (then-)leaders of Venezuela and Zimbabwe, Hugo Chávez and Robert Mugabe.[219][220][221][222] Gaddafi's Libya, despite its relatively small population, was known to possess vast resources, particularly in the form of oil reserves and financial capital.[223] Libya is a member of OPEC and one of the world's largest oil producers. It was producing roughly 1.6 million barrels a day before the war, nearly 70 percent of them through the state-owned National Oil Corporation.[224] Additionally, the country's sovereign wealth fund, the Libyan Investment Authority, was one of the largest in the world,[225] controlling assets worth approximately US$56 billion,[226] including over 100 tons of gold reserves in the Central Bank of Libya.[227]

Accusations of imperialism on the part of NATO and the West were voiced by many leaders of states that had traditionally aligned themselves with the Communist bloc and subsequently Russia, including: Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei (who said he supported the rebels but not Western intervention[222]), Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez (who referred to Gaddafi as a "martyr"[221]), and President of Zimbabwe Robert Mugabe (who referred to the Western nations as "vampires"[220]), as well as the governments of Raúl Castro in Cuba,[228] Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua,[229] Kim Jong-il in North Korea,[230] Hifikepunye Pohamba in Namibia,[231] and others. Gaddafi himself referred to the intervention as a "colonial crusade ... capable of unleashing a full scale war",[232] a sentiment that was echoed by Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin: "[UNSC Resolution 1973] is defective and flawed...It allows everything. It resembles medieval calls for crusades."[233] President Hu Jintao of the People's Republic of China said, "Dialogue and other peaceful means are the ultimate solutions to problems," and added, "If military action brings disaster to civilians and causes a humanitarian crisis, then it runs counter to the purpose of the UN resolution."[234] Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was critical of the intervention as well, rebuking the coalition in a speech at the UN in September 2011.[235] Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, despite the substantial role his country played in the NATO mission, also spoke out against getting involved: "I had my hands tied by the vote of the parliament of my country. But I was against and I am against this intervention which will end in a way that no-one knows" and added "This wasn't a popular uprising because Gaddafi was loved by his people, as I was able to see when I went to Libya."[236][237]

Russia's foreign broadcasting service, RT, has postulated that NATO intervention may have been motivated by Gaddafi's attempts to establish a unified federation of African states that would use the gold dinar as its currency and demand that foreign importers of African oil pay in gold.[219] Despite its stated opposition to NATO intervention, Russia abstained from voting on Resolution 1973 instead of exercising its veto power as a permanent member of the Security Council; four other powerful nations also abstained from the vote—India, China, Germany, and Brazil—but of that group only China has the same veto power.[238]

Moreover, criticisms have been made on the way the operation was led. According to Michael Kometer and Stephen Wright, the outcome of the Libyan intervention was reached by default rather than by design. It appears that there was an important lack of consistent political guidance caused particularly by the vagueness of the UN mandate and the ambiguous consensus among the NATO-led coalition. This lack of clear political guidance was translated into an incoherent military planning on the operational level. Such a gap may impact the future NATO's operations that will probably face trust issues.[239]

In 2015 through 2016 the British parliament's Foreign Affairs Select Committee conducted an extensive and highly critical inquiry into the British involvement in the civil war. It concluded that the early threat to civilians had been overstated and that the significant Islamist element in the rebel forces had not been recognised, due to an intelligence failure. By summer 2011 the initial limited intervention to protect Libyan civilians had become a policy of regime change. However that new policy did not include proper support and for a new government, leading to a political and economic collapse in Libya and the growth of ISIL in North Africa. The Foreign Affairs Select Committee saw no evidence that the UK Government carried out a proper analysis of the nature of the rebellion in Libya and it "selectively took elements of Muammar Gaddafi’s rhetoric at face value; and it failed to identify the militant Islamist extremist element in the rebellion. UK strategy was founded on erroneous assumptions and an incomplete understanding of the evidence".[240] The former Prime Minister David Cameron was ultimately responsible for this British policy failure.[241][242][243]

Costs

Funds spent by Foreign Powers on War in Libya.
Country Funds Spent By
 United Kingdom $336–$1,500 million USD September 2011 (estimate)[244][245]
 United States $896 – US$1,100 million October 2011[246][247][248][249][250]
 Italy $700 million EUR October 2011[251]
 France $450 million EUR September 2011[252][253]
 Turkey US$300 million July 2011[254]
 Denmark $120 million EUR November 2011[255]
 Belgium $58 million EUR October 2011[256]
 Spain $50 million EUR September 2011[257]
 Sweden US$50 million October 2011[258]
 Canada US$26 million June 2011[259]
 Greece $15 million EUR July 2011

On 22 March 2011, BBC News presented a breakdown of the likely costs to the UK of the mission.[260] Journalist Francis Tusa, editor of Defence Analysis, estimated that flying a Tornado GR4 would cost about £35,000 an hour (aprx. US$48,000), so the cost of patrolling one sector of Libyan airspace would be £2M –£3M ($2.75M -$4.13M USD) per day. Conventional airborne missiles would cost £800,000 each and Tomahawk cruise missiles £750,000 each. Professor Malcolm Charmers of the Royal United Services Institute similarly suggested that a single cruise missile would cost about £500,000, while a single Tornado sortie would cost about £30,000 in fuel alone. If a Tornado was downed the replacement cost would be upwards of £50m. By 22 March the US and UK had already fired more than 110 cruise missiles. UK Chancellor George Osborne had said that the MoD estimate of the operation cost was "tens rather than hundreds of millions". On 4 April Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton said that the RAF was planning to continue operations over Libya for at least six months.[261]

The total number of sorties flown by NATO numbered more than 26,000, an average of 120 sorties per day. 42% of the sorties were strike sorties, which damaged or destroyed approximately 6,000 military targets. At its peak, the operation involved more than 8,000 servicemen and women, 21 NATO ships in the Mediterranean and more than 250 aircraft of all types. By the end of the operation, NATO had conducted over 3,000 hailings at sea and almost 300 boardings for inspection, with 11 vessels denied transit to their next port of call.[262]

See also

References

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Further reading

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