Community colleges in the United States

In the United States, community colleges (once commonly called junior colleges) are primarily two-year public institutions of higher education. Many community colleges also offer remedial education, GEDs, high school degrees, technical degrees and certificates, and a limited number of 4-year degrees.

After graduating from a community college, some students transfer to a university or liberal arts college for two to three years to complete a bachelor's degree, while others enter the workforce.

In 2012–2013, 7.7 million people attended U.S. community colleges, with about 3.1 million students enrolled full-time, and about 4.6 million students enrolled part-time.[1]

During the Great Recession (2007-2009), community colleges faced state budget cuts amid increases in enrollment. As a result, community colleges raised student tuition.[2] With enrollments decreasing, lower budgets at community colleges continues[3][4] with increasing reliance on adjunct professors, who are generally paid significantly less, typically receive little-to-no employment benefits, and face much greater uncertainty of continued employment semester to semester.[5][6][7] [8][9][10][11]

Community colleges received attention in 2015 after President Barack Obama proposed to make community college tuition free to many residents of the US in his State of the Union Address.[12] The plan is called "America’s College Promise."[13][14] This attention has brought on both praise, scrutiny, and criticism of community colleges and the funding of higher education in general. [15][16] This plan, however, would only pay tuition; non-tuition items such as textbooks, supplies, transportation, and room and board for those wishing to live on campus would not be covered in Obama's plan.[17]

Joliet Junior College (IL), established 1901, was the first community college in the United States.[18]
Education in the United States
Education portal
United States portal

Terminology and control

Before the 1970s, community colleges were more commonly referred to as junior colleges, and that term is still used at some institutions and for athletics, specifically the NJCAA. However, the term "junior college" is now usually used to characterize private two-year institutions. The term "community college" has evolved to describe publicly funded two-year institutions. The main governing body of community colleges changed its name in 1992 from the "American Association of Junior Colleges" to the "American Association of Community Colleges".

A gymnasium at Union County College in Cranford, New Jersey.
Building.
Hudson County Community College in Union City, NJ.

Cohen and Brawer report on the variety of other names, such as city college, county college (in New Jersey), and branch campus. Other common components of the school name include vocational, technical, adult education and technical institute. Nicknames include "democracy's college" and "opportunity college." [19]

In several California cities as well as in other large cities such as Chicago, with its City Colleges of Chicago, community colleges are often called "city colleges", since they were municipally funded and designed to serve the needs of the residents of the city in which they are situated. Also, the state's public two-year colleges are not solely found in its larger cities.

New York City's network of community colleges was established outside of the CUNY system, and only integrated into that system at the insistence of the state government. Another example is Westchester Community College. In the late 1940s, the county operated a popular vocational institute. The New York state government required that the county transform its technical institute into a community college. The county government resisted this transformation, as it would be responsible for a third of the new institution's operating costs (in contrast, the state paid for all of the technical institute's operating costs). After a series of very heated meetings, fully reported in the local press, the county was forced to conform to the state government's wishes.

As a general rule, broad generalizations about the origins, purposes, and funding of public two-year colleges varies widely among the states and, as in the case of California, within states. Furthermore, because the vital role played by rural community colleges in preparing excess rural youth for productive careers in urban centers is not well understood by policy makers, these relatively small institutions do not receive sufficient state funding to offset their weak tax bases and, because of their relatively small size, much higher per-student costs when compared to urban community colleges. This inequity in basic institutional funding has led to the creation of such organizations as the Community Colleges of Appalachia and the tribal college association, which have sought to promote more equitable funding irrespective of an institution's size or location.

History

Early community colleges

Before 1850, a few public institutions offered two years of college: Lasell Junior College in Auburndale, Massachusetts and Vincennes University of Vincennes, Indiana. Helland cites a section from the 1899 Vincennes University catalog: “The Vincennes University occupies a unique position in the educational field. It is half-way between the commissioned high school and the full-fledged college: it is in fact a junior college.”[20]

Many of the early community colleges were normal schools that prepared school teachers. Primary emphasis was placed on traditional middle class values and developing responsible citizens. As an example, Normal Schools began in the State of Massachusetts in the 1880s as extensions of local high schools. They were originated to meet the need for teacher preparation. For example, in Saint Joseph, Missouri, a Normal School was added to the local high school to provide a career track for women who wanted to teach. Mr. Whiteford, the area’s district superintendent, inquired of the University of Missouri to determine if credits from Saint Joseph Normal School could transfer into a baccalaureate program. The University’s President Dr. Hill acknowledged the request and provided for the articulation. Coincidentally, Dr. Hill was actively involved in the American Association of Universities and calling for the establishment of junior colleges for this purpose. In Minnesota, St. Paul’s Public School District established a “City Training School” for preparing teachers.[21] The 1883 school’s mission was to provide certified teachers and substitutes for the district. Mrs. M. E. Jenness from the Normal School at River Falls, Wisconsin was the St. Paul School’s first principal; Mrs. N. F. Wheaton was the Director of Practice. Wheaton had been employed at the Oshkosh Normal School in Wisconsin. In Minneapolis, a Normal Training School was instituted in the fall of 1887. Miss Adele Evers of Manchester Normal School in New Hampshire was appointed the first teacher; she was one of six candidates for the position. Evers’ references included work at Martha’s Vineyard and Saratoga.[22]

Baltimore’s Manual Training High School opened in 1884, was the first separate secondary school for education that was specifically work orientated.[23] The Maryland institution was unique as a stand-alone campus. Other examples of sub-baccalaureate programs were the University Preparatory School and Junior College of Tonkawa. The result of the two- year schools founded in Oklahoma Public School Secondary System in 1902, both institutions later merged in 1914 and became the Oklahoma Institute of Technology. Dean Schneider of the University of Cincinnati developed an alternative high school with a cooperative plan where students spent one week in an occupation and the other in school. Industry provided the shop experiences and the classroom facilitated the academic.[24] There were also non-cooperative high schools; two examples were the Girl’s Vocational High School in Kansas City, Missouri and the Delgado Trade School in New Orleans. A two-year, terminal education, was seen as more socially efficient for students who could advance past high school but not continue to attain bachelor's degrees. This national vocational movement gave junior colleges a target population, but numerous students wanted more than a semiprofessional education; many maintained a desire to transfer. Throughout this time period, there was a move for more public two-year institutions along with a trend to separate from high schools and affiliate with higher education. With the change in affiliation came a new status which encouraged junior colleges to develop additional credibility through the creation of professional criteria and use of scientific methods.

Brint and Karabel conclude that, “The two-year college has been a distinctively American creation, and nowhere else has it attained such prominence.”[25] J. L. Ratcliff.[26] suggests one perspective for the emergence of two-year post secondary institutions of the past century: they began in the private sector after the Panic of 1893. At that time of severe financial hardship J. M. Carroll, president of Baylor University, made a pragmatic suggestion to solve the problem of too many Baptist colleges with insufficient funds and not enough students to support them: reduce the smaller Baptist colleges’ curriculum to the freshman and sophomore years. After this preliminary period, Baylor University would accept the two-year students and provide the junior and senior years of their academic plan. Carroll hoped this split would require fewer faculty and resources for the first two years of higher education.

In the larger cities early public community colleges were often an extension of high schools, like the first established, Joliet Junior College, in Illinois in 1901. These initial community colleges generally were small (usually fewer than 200 students) and focused on a liberal arts education with the goal of transferring students to four-year colleges. They reflected high school needs and lacked a definite identity. These examples of two-year structure innovations with transfer missions in the private and public sector provided a pragmatic approach for the preservation of existing institutions.

Junior colleges grew from 20 in number In 1909, to 170 in 1919. By 1922, 37 states had set up 70 junior colleges, enrolling about 150 students each. Meanwhile, another 137 were privately operated, with about 60 students each. Rapid expansion continued in the 1920s, with 440 junior colleges in 1930 enrolling about 70,000 students. The peak year for private institutions came in 1949, when there were 322 junior colleges in all; 180 were affiliated with churches, 108 were independent non-profit, and 34 were private Schools run for-profit.[27]

Many factors contributed to rapid growth of community colleges. Students parents and businessmen wanted nearby, low-cost schools to provide training for the growing white collar labor force, as well as for more advanced technical jobs in the blue collar sphere. Four years colleges were also growing, albeit not as fast; however many of them were located in rural or small-town areas away from the fast-growing metropolis.

Several different movements supported the creation of community colleges, including local community support of public and private two-year institutions, the expansion of the public education system, increased professional standards for teachers, the vocational education movement, and an expanding demand for adult and community education. Numerous colleges and universities advocated for the development of junior colleges. Leadership felt small, private liberal arts colleges and high schools could provide the first two years of college while larger universities could focus resources on research and junior and senior level students.

Depression era

During the 1920s and 1930s there was a shift in the purpose of community colleges to developing a workforce, which was influenced by wide unemployment during the Great Depression. Developing "semiprofessionals" became dominant national language to describe junior college students. The notion that engineers and supervisors make primary decisions about what and how activities were to be done in the workplace provided the origins for employees needed to carry out their decisions. This need for a class of workers to implement the decisions of the theoreticians demanded an educational delivery system other than the traditional four-year college or university. The closed shop of the artisan which had initially provided workers was no longer the educational program of choice. Nationally, a new two-year vehicle for educating the industrial worker found its launching within the secondary public school system under the leadership of local school districts.

Cold War era

After World War II, the G.I. Bill afforded more educational opportunity to veterans which resulted in increased enrollments. Another factor that led to growth was the rise of adult and community education. After World War II, community colleges were seen as a good place to house continuing education programs. The 1947 President's Commission on Higher Education was an important national document for community colleges. It established a network of public community colleges that would provide education to a diverse group of students at little or no cost along with serving community needs through a comprehensive mission.

This national network exploded in the 1960s with 457 community colleges and the enrollment of baby boomers. A series of grants through the Kellogg Junior College Leadership Programs helped train many community college leaders during this decade.

Merritt College, a junior college (and now a community college) in Oakland, California, was the site for organizing and educating members of the Black Panthers in the mid- to late-1960s.[28][29][30]

In the 1970s, growth continued when many enrolled to escape the Vietnam era draft. The 1970s also marked a shift to faculty development, including more instructional training for the unique student body and mission of community colleges. During the 1980s, community colleges began to work more closely with high schools to prepare students for vocational and technical two-year programs.

By the end of the 20th century, two-year community colleges were playing important roles in higher education as access mechanisms. They became an integral feature for those persons who were attending higher education for the first time or as non-traditional students. Brint and Karabel[31] have recognized the change that transpired from 1920 when fewer than 2 percent of all college freshmen were enrolled in a two-year college to the late 1980s when over 50 percent were matriculated. Junior colleges once located in high schools had left their origins to develop their own campuses and were called community colleges and still retained the transfer access mission. High school normal schools matured into teacher colleges or colleges of education within universities offering bachelor and graduate degrees. Industrial institutes integrated with local junior colleges to make these campus’s programs more comprehensive community colleges. Along with this growth and legitimization of two-year mechanisms for the delivery of higher education, the emergence of two-year institutions provided an epistemological debate that divided the river of education flowing into the early 20th century into three streams of educational natures. “In the process of this struggle and adjustment some colleges will grow stronger, some will become academies, some junior colleges; the high schools will be elevated to a still more important position than that which they now occupy. The general result will be the growth of a system in the higher educational work of the United States, where now no system exists.”[32]

1990s and 2000s

In recent history, a debate between the advocates and critics of community colleges gained strength. Advocates argued that community colleges served the needs of society by providing college opportunity to students who otherwise cannot go to college, training and retraining mid-level skilled workers, and preserving the academic excellence of four-year universities. Critics argued that community colleges continued a culture of privilege through training business workers at public expense, not allowing the working class to advance in social class, protecting selective admissions at four-year institutions for the nation's elite, and discouraging transfer through cooling out.[33]

Although the growth of community colleges has stabilized, enrollment continued to outgrow four-year institutions. A total of 1,166 loosely linked community colleges face challenges of new technological innovations, distance learning, funding constraints, community pressure, and international influence. Some of the issues currently faced are explored in community college resources compiled by the Association for Career and Technical Education.

2010s (The Great Recession and austerity)

In the 2010s, funding for community colleges faced scrutiny as state budgets were tightened. Because higher education budgets are considered discretionary expenses, they have been more likely targets for cuts than K-12 education or Medicaid.[34] In 2014, however, the state of Tennessee and the city of Chicago, Illinois began programs for free community college. In 2015, President Barack Obama proposed a plan for free community colleges, where states would contribute a portion of the funding. However, key Republican lawmakers, including John Boehner (a key proponent of for-profit colleges) [35] [36] [37] and Mitch McConnell publicly opposed the legislation.[15][38]

Two states have taken measures to provide free community college to students. “Oregon now is poised to follow Tennessee as the second state with a plan on the books to provide free two-year college” [39] The Oregon Promise, similar to America’s College Promise, will provide free community college to students who meet certain eligibility requirements. According to Fain, the legislation will cost Oregon $10 million per year to pay for tuition costs state and federal aid doesn’t cover. Thanks to a large increase in funding for higher education, Oregon is able to financially afford the costs of providing free community college to students. While only two states have made strides in providing a free community college education, White House representatives want to see more states support the initiative. [39] The state of Tennessee currently has the Tennessee Promise, but this initiative does not receive its funding in the same manner in which President Obama wants to fund America’s College Promise (Mangan & Supiano, 2015). Following in the footsteps of Tennessee and Oregon is Illinois. The Community College of Philadelphia and Harper College in Illinois recently announced its plans to provide free two-year community college experiences to students (Fain, 2015).[39]

Timeline of important events 1901: Joliet, Illinois added fifth and sixth year courses to the high school curriculum leading to the development of the first public junior college, Joliet Junior College.[40]

1920: American Association of Junior Colleges established.

1930: First publication of the Community College Journal.

1944: Passage of the Federal G.I. Bill of Rights

1947: Publication of Higher Education for American Democracy by the President's Commission on Higher Education (the 1947 Truman Commission).

1965: Higher Education Act of 1965 established grant programs to make higher education more accessible.

1992: The American Association of Junior Colleges changed their name to the American Association of Community Colleges.

Adjunct faculty and contingent labor

Adjunct faculty, also known as contingent labor, make up most of the instructional staff at community colleges. Adjunct pay ranges from about $1,397 to about $3,000 per course. While the community college instructional staff is diverse, some community college teachers are "freeway flyers" who work at multiple campuses to make a living. [41] [42] Most adjunct faculty have limited autonomy and input, and are provided a limited amount of resources. Poor pay for adjuncts and a lack of job stability leads to faculty turnover.[8] [43]

Governance

State governance

The higher education governance structure landscape in the United States is very diverse; they are not intended to be precise organization charts. According to the Education Commission of the States there are three major types of higher education governance systems in the states; they are Governing Board States, Coordinating Board States and Planning/ Regulatory/Service Agency States. (from: The Education Commission of the States website)

Governing board states (GBS)

State-level governing boards are distinguished according to whether they are responsible for consolidated systems or multi-campus systems. Consolidated systems are composed of several previously independently governed institutions that were later consolidated into one system. Multi-campus systems developed primarily through extensions of various branches or campuses.

Coordinating board states

Coordinating boards vary significantly in formal authority and informal power and influence from state to state. Generally, there is a state level board governing universities, colleges, and community colleges. Each university and community college district will have its own board that is accountable to a state-coordinating agency.

The Planning/Regulatory/Service Agency States (PRSA)

The PRSA states have limited or non-existent formal governing or coordinating authority, which carry out regulatory and service functions such as student financial aid.

For a comprehensive list of American community colleges and their state level governing boards: U.S. Community Colleges by State, University of Texas at Austin

A more thorough description of state level college and university governance models can be found at: Models of Postsecondary Education Coordination and Governance in the States

Local governance

Most community colleges are operated within special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, as a division of a state university, or as a sister institution within a statewide higher education system.

In all cases, community colleges are governed by a board of trustees, appointed by the state governor, or the board is elected by citizens residing within the community college district. In some instances, as with the City Colleges of Chicago, the board of trustees is appointed by the presiding local government. In Chicago, it is the mayor who appoints the board.

Depending on the operational system, the board of trustees may directly govern the college or may govern the college through a university or system-level office. Depending upon the locus of control, the board may or may not be subject to control by a state agency that supervises all community college districts or all higher education institutions within the state.

The board of trustees selects a president or chancellor of the community college to serve as the chief executive officer and lead the faculty and staff.

Multi-college district

Multi-college community college districts include several individually accredited community colleges within one district. Each college is independent with distinct local administration, but they share a single board of trustees and report to a non-instructional central administrative office.

The Contra Costa Community College District is an example of one of the largest multi-college community college districts in California. The District consists of Contra Costa College, Diablo Valley College, Los Medanos College, San Ramon Campus, and Brentwood Center, and annually serves almost 62,000 students.

Multi-campus district

Larger schools implement a multi-campus system and generally share a single accreditation. Local administrative governance varies. Extension campuses report to the main campus administration or a central administrative office. A good example of this is College of DuPage in Glen Ellyn, Illinois, which has 6 satellite campuses within a 10-mile area, in addition to its main campus, which itself has 9 structures and an enrollment of over 30,000 students.

Faculty governance

Faculty senates and councils

A faculty senate, or faculty council as this body is sometimes referred to, is the representative body of all faculty who participate in the governance processes of the community college. As with all governing bodies, the faculty senate is usually governed by a constitution and a set of bylaws specific to the college. Membership in this body varies from college, with most restricting voting rights to tenured and tenure track faculty, and others allowing a wider array of members to include full-time, adjunct, continuing education, technical, and adult basic education faculty. (modified from: http://www.pima.edu/facsenate/)

Though this is not an exhaustive list, the mission of the faculty senate at the community college usually includes: matters concerning curricular decisions; strengthening the concept of the faculty as a college entity; promoting the gathering, exchanging, and disseminating of faculty views and concerns regarding college matters; promoting mutual accountability between the college faculty and the faculty representative to any college committee; advising the Chancellor and other administrators of faculty views on college matters; bringing the concerns of the Chancellor and other administrators on college matters to the faculty; promoting the involvement of all faculty members in the establishing, staffing, and functioning of college committees, task forces, or other initiatives; and participating in the policy review process of the college.

Collective bargaining units/agreements

Most community college faculty are bargained for employees. While unions and their respective collective bargaining agreements serve to protect faculty rights and working conditions, collective bargaining agreements, or union contracts, provide faculty with a defined set of rules and regulations they must follow as a condition of employment. Collective bargaining swept into higher education on the coattails of legislation authorizing public employees to negotiate. As these laws were passed in various states in the 1960s and 1970s, employee groups ranging from refuse collectors to prison guards gained union representation and began negotiating contracts (Cohen & Brawer, 2008, p. 147)

Collective bargaining units exist for all divisions of community college faculty; however, participation by faculty groups differs from college to college.

Student governance

There is a student government organizational presence on close to every community college campus in America The Student Government organization is the official voice of the student body, a vital link in effective student participation in all areas of student concern in relationship to the college’s administration. By advocating student rights and services, the organization represents the student body and presents its concerns to the college administration, local, and national issues. Through the Student Government organizations the college provides students with essential leadership experience, and valuable connections with faculty, staff administration, students, and the Board of Trustees. Student involvement is usually based on criteria set by the institution; all students have the right as a student to participate in democratic process on campus. (from ASGA's entry of Bakersfield College)

Shared governance

Shared governance is the set of practices under which college faculty and staff participates in significant decisions concerning the operation of their institutions. Colleges are very special types of institutions with a unique mission—the creation and dissemination of ideas. At the heart of shared governance is the belief that decision-making should be largely independent of short-term managerial and political considerations. Faculty and professional staff are in the best position to shape and implement curriculum and research policy, to select academic colleagues and judge their work; and The perspective of all front-line personnel is invaluable in making sound decisions about allocating resources, setting goals, choosing top officers and guiding student life.

For a more detailed explanation of governance at the community college, please see the AAUP’s 1966 Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities and the 1998 statement on the same topic by the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges. These documents more clearly define those matters that are the responsibility of the voting faculty and those reserved to the governing body and its delegates. (From: http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2002/JA/Feat/Luce.htm)

Enrollment

In the United States, community colleges operate under a policy of "open admission." That is, anyone with a high school diploma or GED may attend, regardless of prior academic status or college entrance exam scores. Although community colleges have an open admission policy, students have to take placement tests before enrolling at the college, due to not all courses being open admission. In California and Minnesota, students who have reached the age of 18 are not required to have completed secondary education; instead, they must simply show an "ability to benefit" from a college's educational program. Under certain circumstances, community colleges will also accept high school students or dropouts.

The open admission policy results in a wide range of students attending community college classes. Students range in age from teenagers in high school taking classes under a concurrent, or dual, enrollment policy (which allows both high school and college credits to be earned simultaneously) to working adults taking classes at night to complete a degree or gain additional skills in their field to students with graduate degrees who enroll to become more employable or to pursue lifelong interests. "Reverse transfers" (or those transferring from a university) constitute one of the fastest growing new community college cohorts.

One threat to enrollment at community colleges has been the increasing popularity of for-profit e-learning and online universities, such as the University of Phoenix, now the 16th-largest university in the world. Higher education research and consulting firm Eduventures estimates that 10 percent of college students will be enrolled in an online degree program by 2008[44] Many community colleges have supplemented their offerings with online courses to stave off competition from exclusively e-learning schools. For example, Northern Virginia Community College's Extended Learning Institute[45] has been offering distance learning courses for thirty-five years. Texas offers the Virtual College of Texas whereby a student at any community college in the state can attend classes from any of the state's 51 community colleges or four Texas State Technical College campuses, paying local tuition plus a VCT fee of around $40.

The Maricopa County Community College District in the Phoenix, Arizona metropolitan area, is the largest community college district in the United States in terms of enrollment.[46]

California has the lowest community college enrollment fees in the nation, currently set at $46 per unit for state residents.

In terms of enrollment demographics the American Association of Community Colleges (2015) 46% of all U.S. undergraduates are community college students.[47] Other representations are as follows: first generation-41%, Native American-61%, Hispanic-57%, Black-52% and Asian/Pacific Islander-43%.[48] While 50% of students are white at community colleges, that is 10% lower compared to 4-year institutions and a greater percentage exists of every non-white group at community colleges.[49] More than half of Native American, Hispanic, and Black undergraduates are enrolled in community colleges, rather than 4-year institutions, a testament to their service to underrepresented populations. The average age of student is 28 compared to the 24-year-old 4-year institution average.[50] Nearly 50% of students fall between the ages of 22–39, a much higher age range than the 4-year institution. There are slightly more women, 57%, than men, which may attribute to the greater amount of students with children and the women who return to school after becoming a stay-at-home mother (17% of students are single parents). 60% of students are enrolled in credit coursework, seeking degrees, while the other 40% is pursuing certifications.[51] Over 70% of students apply for any kind of financial aid, while only 58% receive aid.[52] This only increases the number of student’s requiring some form of employment. When it comes to employment status the two highest populations are full-time students with part-time jobs and part-time students with full-time jobs. This is likely due to the necessity of work/school balance. As Katz and Davison (2014) state, “…community college students are more likely to be working class, ethnic minorities, over age 25, and from less educated families than traditional university students” (p. 308).[53] Despite the added barriers and obstacles faced by community college students, research has found that these same students possess high aspirations, and have shown self-initiative, and resilience.[54]

Educational offerings

Community colleges generally offer a range of programs.

Associate degree

In study towards an associate degree, a student takes necessary courses needed to earn a degree that will allow for entry into jobs requiring some level of college education but not a full four-year degree. The associate degree program also allows students who wish to eventually obtain a bachelor's degree at a four-year college to complete the necessary "core" requirements to attend the college of their choice. Some states have mandated that the community college's curriculum be structured so as to satisfy "core curriculum" requirements at the state's public universities or private universities.

Many community colleges have articulation arrangements with nearby four-year institutions, where a student obtaining an associate degree in a field will automatically have his/her classes counted toward the bachelor's degree requirement. For example, a community college associate degree in hotel and restaurant management, computers or accounting would count toward the four-year school's core requirement for a Business Administration degree. Some have gone one step further by arrangements with a four-year college for the student to obtain the bachelor's degree from the four-year college while taking all the courses via distance learning or other non-traditional modes, thus reducing the number of physical visits to the four-year school. One such example is College of DuPage (COD) in Illinois, who have implemented a program called 3+1. In this program, students can take three years of classes at the community college taught by COD professors and faculty, and in the fourth year attend classes on the COD campus, but taught by professors of nearby partner universities, such as Benedictine University, Concordia University, Governors State University, Lewis University, and Roosevelt University.[55]

Certification

Certification in an area of training (such as nursing, computer repair, allied health, law enforcement, firefighting, or welding), which require preparation for a state or national examination, or where certification would allow for hiring preference or a higher salary upon entering the workforce. These courses are often geared toward the needs of the local or area business community.

Local services

Services of local interest to members of the community, such as job placement, adult continuing education classes (either for personal achievement or to maintain certification in specialized fields), and developmental classes for children. Some community colleges offer opportunities for high school dropouts to return to school and earn a high school diploma or obtain a GED.

Bachelor's degrees

A growing trend in the United States is for community colleges to begin offering bachelor's degrees. As of 2013, nineteen states have authorized their community colleges to offer bachelor's degrees with California passing authorizing legislation in 2014.[56][57]

Many large community colleges, such as Miami-Dade College and St. Petersburg College, in Florida have even completely dropped the words "community" or "junior" from their names as they have added bachelor's degree programs in limited fields and have started their evolution into four-year colleges while retaining their local commitments. Even some smaller community colleges, such as Northern New Mexico College in Española, New Mexico, have dropped community from their names and now offer six or more bachelor's degrees.[58] A few of the larger institutions, such as De Anza College in northern California and College of DuPage near Chicago, who both boast enrollment of over 25,000 students, continue to explore the cost-benefit analysis in offering 4-year degrees. In more rural communities, community colleges may host branches of the local state university, and community colleges with specialized programs may offer four-year degrees in conjunction with other schools, some miles away. For instance, Southern Illinois University offers aviation management bachelor's degrees at Mt. San Antonio College and Palomar College in Southern California.

Advantages of community colleges

Disadvantages of community colleges

Comprehensive community colleges

Many schools have adapted the term comprehensive to describe their institutions. These schools typically offer six facets of education:

  1. Transfer education – The traditional two-year student who will then transfer to a four-year institution to pursue a BS/BA degree.
  2. Career education – The traditional two-year student that will graduate with an associate degree and directly enter the workforce.
  3. Developmental – Remedial education for high school graduates who are not academically ready to enroll in college-level courses.
  4. Continuing – Non-Credit courses offered to the community for personal development and interest.
  5. Industry training – Contracted training and education wherein a local company pays the college to provide specific training or courses for their employees.
  6. eLearning – Distance learning occurs online using one's computer and proctored exams. Pell grants and federal aid apply to eLearning also. For example, studying Spanish in an eLearning environment is possible when a student is in another state and federal aid is applied to out-of-state tuition.

Within the transfer education category, comprehensive schools typically have articulation agreements in place that provide prearranged acceptance into specific four-year institutions.[72] At some community colleges, the partnering four-year institution teaches the third and fourth year courses at the community college location and thereby allows a student to obtain a four-year degree without having to physically move to the four-year school.

There are institutions and organizations which provide community college research to inform practice and policy.

For background on U.S. community college libraries, see "Disposed to Consolidation and Innovation: Criteria for the Community College Specialization."[73]

Remediation

Remediation, or sometimes referred to as developmental education, is a format of education aimed to help open doors for students by reinforcing or re-teaching them core skills. This educational strategy is utilized so students can meet competencies in various academic arenas and further progress in their academics. Remediation is prominent in community colleges, a type of two-year colleges, as these institutions are designed to accommodate students of various levels of academic abilities. Community college students are placed into remedial coursework according to their performance on placement-based testing they take prior to beginning classes.

Assignment

The push in shifting students to enroll in remedial courses at community colleges stems from philosophical beliefs and reputations that these are the most appropriate places for instruction.[74][75] All community colleges have developmental or remedial courses of some kind.[75][76] Around 42 percent of first-year students attending two-year colleges in the United States sign up for remedial courses, twice as many as those at four-year universities or colleges.[77] In Ohio, four in ten traditional-age students at community colleges enroll in remedial English courses, whereas six in ten enroll in remedial math.[75] This state example reflects national studies that show a higher need for remedial community college students to take math courses, which also often have bigger class sizes and more levels of coursework than their remedial reading and writing counterpart courses.[78] Students start taking remedial coursework in community colleges according to their performance on college placement tests, considered by some scholars to be far from perfect in their designs.[79] Community colleges possess few admission requirements, meaning these types of institutions see a higher number of remedial students.[80] Remedial education within community colleges may exist within an academic department, in its own academic department, or in an entire academic unit of its own.[78]

Successful approaches

Scholars recommend that community colleges can enhance their remedial education programs through utilizing a variety of methods. Community colleges are suggested to allow students to have the option of taking other courses, in addition to remedial courses, so they may feel like they are making progress with their programs.[81] The institution of learning communities at community colleges may be challenging due to the nature of these students coming to and leaving campus often, but they have been helpful for remedial students at other postsecondary educations in facilitating friendships, improved studying patterns, and higher rates of passing courses.[74][82] Technology-enhanced classrooms, complete with SmartBoards, computers and online networks, can increase the level of motivation that remedial community college students place toward their academic work.[83] Remedial students obtaining academic assistance via college writing centers can also be helpful for enhancing their skills, as well as observing the interdisciplinary nature of classroom concepts and learning strategies.[77][84]

Advantages

Effective and passionate instructors can provide remedial students with social capital, leading them to services ranging from tutoring and counseling.[77] Students in remedial courses often end of performing “better than college-prepared students in terms of their grade point average, retention, and program completion.”[76] Remedial students who attend community college orientations and receive more contact with tutoring, advising and mentoring services find these options to be rewarding.[78] Those who complete remedial courses before college level courses often experience more benefits, including higher grade point averages, compared to their counterparts who do not take these remedial courses early in their college careers.[85]

Disadvantages and criticisms

Some students are placed into remedial courses, even when they only have minor issues, leading them to need to pass and complete remedial courses before being able to enroll in a basic course for that subject area.[74][75] Likewise, some students are restricted from taking classes in other disciplines, such as physical sciences, until they complete developmental sequences.[86] Students who take remedial courses may not have these count as college credits, and these students may be more likely to complete fewer college credits overall or stop out of college.[75][81] Many community college instructors of remedial courses are part-time faculty members, which can prove challenging to students who require more assistance and contact.[78][80] While some scholars debate whether money should be allocated toward remedial education, opponents argue that withholding these opportunities also has a direct impact on the quality of employees in the workforce if they continue to lack essential skills.[76]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Community College FAQs". columbia.edu.
  2. ↑ "Recent Deep State Higher Education Cuts May Harm Students and the Economy for Years to Come". cbpp.org.
  3. ↑ "With enrollment low, stakes are high, a community college learns @insidehighered". insidehighered.com.
  4. ↑ "As the economy improves, community colleges cut costs and jobs". kansascity.
  5. ↑ "Why adjunct professors are struggling to make ends meet". PBS NewsHour.
  6. ↑ "The Pink Collar Workforce of Academia". thenation.com.
  7. ↑ "How the University Works; Reclaiming the Ivory Tower". Louis Proyect: The Unrepentant Marxist.
  8. 1 2 "The Just-In-Time Professor" (PDF). Democrats.edworkforce.house.gov. Retrieved 2015-07-02.
  9. ↑ "Adjunct professors in dire straits with low pay, lack of full-time jobs". aljazeera.com.
  10. ↑ "Unions Can Fix Adjunct Professor Crisis – Al Jazeera America". aljazeera.com.
  11. ↑ "Report: Part-time Professors Represented Among the Working Poor".
  12. ↑ Eric Bradner, CNN (20 January 2015). "Obama: 'Tonight, we turn the page'". CNN.
  13. ↑ "America's College Promise: A Ticket to the Middle Class". ed.gov.
  14. ↑ "Obama Highlights 'Free' Community College Plan, Tax Reform In State Of The Union Address – National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators". nasfaa.org.
  15. 1 2 JULIE HIRSCHFELD DAVIS and TAMAR LEWIN. "Obama Plan Would Help Many Go to Community College Free". The New York Times.
  16. ↑ Kelly, Andrew; James, Kevin (22 January 2015), Obama’s Community College Plan: The Wrong Way to Improve Job Skills, American Enterprise Institute, retrieved 9 April 2015
  17. ↑ Butler, Stuart. "Obama's SOTU Free College Plan Is Bad for Poor Americans". The Brookings Institution. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  18. ↑ Cohen, Arthur (2008). The American Community College. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. p. 566. ISBN 978-0-470-17468-5.
  19. ↑ Arthur M. Cohen and Florence B. Brawer, The American Community College (4th ed. 2003) p 4
  20. ↑ Phillip C. Helland, Establishment of Public Junior and Community Colleges in Minnesota 1914–1983, (Saint Paul, MN: Minnesota Community College System, 1987), p. 1.
  21. ↑ B. F. Wright, “Annual Report of the Superintendent,” Annual Report of the Board of Education. Saint Paul, MN: Globe Office. June 1883, 76–78.
  22. ↑ John E. Bradley, “Superintendent’s Report,” The Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Minneapolis, Minneapolis: Tribune Job Printing Company. June 30, 1887, 17–19.
  23. ↑ William H. Dooley, Industrial Education, (Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1919)
  24. ↑ Charles A. Prosser and Charles A. Allen. Vocational Education in a Democracy. (New York: The Century Co., 1925), 225
  25. ↑ Stephen Brint and Jerome Karabel, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900–1985 (Oxford University Press, 1989), p 19.
  26. ↑ James L. Ratcliff “Seven Streams in the Historical Development of the Modern American Community College” in A Handbook Of The Community College In America Ed. George A. Baker III (1994)
  27. ↑ Cohen and Brawer, The American Community College (4th ed. 2003) p 13-14
  28. ↑ "Black Against Empire". google.com.
  29. ↑ ""The Black Panther Party's Narratives of Resistance" by David Ray Papke". marquette.edu.
  30. ↑ "Project MUSE – The Marginalization of the Black Campus Movement". jhu.edu.
  31. ↑ Stephen Brint and Jerome Karabel, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America, 1900–1985.
  32. ↑ William Rainey Harper, The Prospects of the Small College. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1900), 45–46.
  33. ↑ Clark, Burton R. (1960), "The "cooling-out" function in higher education", American Journal of Sociology, 65 (3): 569–575, doi:10.1086/222787
  34. ↑ Barton Swaim (13 March 2014). "Review: Degrees of Inequality – WSJ". WSJ.
  35. ↑ "Controversial Industries Have Backed Boehner". washingtonpost.com.
  36. ↑ "John Boehner Backed Deregulation Of Online Learning, Leading To Explosive Growth At For-Profit Colleges". The Huffington Post.
  37. ↑ WiredAcademic. "Boehner as Enabler of For-Profit College Bubble". WiredAcademic.
  38. ↑ Lee Enterprises. "Obama's push for free community college stirs debate". stltoday.com.
  39. 1 2 3 Fain, P (2015-07-09). "Free Community College Catches On".
  40. ↑ Merrow, John (April 22, 2007), "Community Colleges: Dream Catchers", New York Times
  41. ↑ "The Average Adjunct Pay at Community Colleges". Work - Chron.com.
  42. ↑ "Separate and Unequal". insidehighered.com.
  43. ↑ "9 Reasons Why Being An Adjunct Faculty Member Is Terrible". The Huffington Post.
  44. ↑ Golden, Daniel. "Online University Enrollment Soars" The Wall Street Journal. 15 May 2006.
  45. ↑ Northern Virginia Community College. "Extended Learning Institute :: Northern Virginia Community College". nvcc.edu.
  46. ↑ "MCCCD Official Website".
  47. ↑ American Association of Community Colleges. (2015). 2015 Community College Fast Facts [Data File]. Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Pages/fastfactsfactsheet.aspx
  48. ↑ American Association of Community Colleges. (2015). 2015 Community College Fast Facts [Data File]. Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Pages/fastfactsfactsheet.aspx
  49. ↑ Katz, D. S., & Davison, K. (2014). Community College Student Mental Health A Comparative Analysis. Community College Review, 42(4), 307–326.
  50. ↑ American Association of Community Colleges. (2015). 2015 Community College Fast Facts [Data File]. Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Pages/fastfactsfactsheet.aspx
  51. ↑ American Association of Community Colleges. (2015). 2015 Community College Fast Facts [Data File]. Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Pages/fastfactsfactsheet.aspx
  52. ↑ American Association of Community Colleges. (2015). 2015 Community College Fast Facts [Data File]. Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Pages/fastfactsfactsheet.aspx
  53. ↑ Katz, D. S., & Davison, K. (2014). Community College Student Mental Health A Comparative Analysis. Community College Review, 42(4), 307–326.
  54. ↑ Glover, J. W., & Murrell, P. H. (1998). Campus Environment and Student Involvement as Predictors of Outcomes of the Community College Experience. Journal of Applied Research in the Community College, 6(1), 5–13.
  55. ↑ "College of DuPage – 3+1 Degree Programs – Earn Your Bachelor's Degree". cod.edu.
  56. ↑ "Baccalaureate Conferring Locations". Community College Baccalaureate Association. October 2013. Retrieved 2015-01-23.
  57. ↑ Allie Bidwell (2014-09-29). "The $10,000 Community College B.A.: California is the latest state to allow community colleges to offer select bachelor's degree programs.". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2015-01-23.
  58. ↑ Archived May 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  59. ↑ Krupnick, Matt (28 October 2015). "Graduates of four-year universities flock to community colleges for job skills". Hechinger Report. Teachers College, Columbia University. Retrieved 29 October 2015. There’s a lot of disciplines universities aren’t offering.
  60. ↑ Barshay, Jill (25 May 2015). "Many community college grads continue to out-earn B.A. holders a decade after graduation". Hechinger Report. Teachers College, Columbia University. Retrieved 29 October 2015. It’s not the degree that matters, but what you got the degree in and, to some extent, where you got it
  61. ↑ Torpey, Elka (2012). "High wages after high school - without a bachelor's degree" (PDF). Occupational Outlook Quarterly. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
  62. ↑ Agrawal, Chad. "Community College Transfer". Community College Transfer Students. Retrieved September 12, 2011.
  63. ↑ Robert Andrew Powell, Community College: Tennis in a Parking Lot, The New York Times, April 22, 2007
  64. ↑ "Welcome to ASSIST". assist.org.
  65. ↑ "Adjuncts and Graduation Rates". insidehighered.com.
  66. ↑ John Merrow, Community Colleges: A Harsh Reality, The New York Times, April 22, 2007.
  67. ↑ See Personal income in the United States – chart on income by educational attainment.
  68. ↑ Boggs, G. R. (2011). The American community college: From access to success. About Campus, 16(2), 2–10.
  69. ↑ Beth Frerking, Community Colleges: For Achievers, a New Destination, The New York Times, April 22, 2007.
  70. ↑ Phil McGraw, Love Smart: Find the One You Want, Fix the One You Got (New York: Free Press, 2005), 41. Dr. Phil remarks, "You need to put up some fences around yourself, lady. You may be easier to get into than a community college. Have some boundaries."
  71. 1 2 Schudde, L., & Goldrick-Rab, S. (2014). On Second Chances and Stratification How Sociologists Think About Community Colleges. Community College Review, 0091552114553296.
  72. ↑ "Associate Degree for Transfer". Retrieved 14 December 2012.
  73. ↑ Kathleen M. Heim, "Disposed to Consolidation and Innovation: Criteria for the Community College Specialization." Community and Junior College Libraries 3 (Summer 1985): 5–15.
  74. 1 2 3 Tinto, Vincent. "Learning communities and the reconstruction of remedial education in higher education" (PDF). Paper presented at the Conference of Replacing Remediation in Higher Education at Stanford University.
  75. 1 2 3 4 5 Bettinger, Eric; Long, Bridget (2005). "Remediation at the community college: Student participation and outcomes". New Directions for Community Colleges. 129.
  76. 1 2 3 McMillan, Virginia; Parke, Scott; Lanning, Carol (1997). "Remedial/developmental education approaches for the current community college environment". New Directions for Community Colleges. 100.
  77. 1 2 3 Callahan, M. Kate; Chumney, Donalda (2009). ""Write like college": How remedial writing courses at a community college and a research university position "at- risk" students in the field of higher education" (PDF). Teachers College Record. 111 (7).
  78. 1 2 3 4 Shults, Christopher. "Remedial education: Practices and policies in community colleges (Research brief)".
  79. ↑ Southard, Anne; Clay, Jennifer (2004). "Measuring the effectiveness of developmental writing courses". Community College Review. 32 (2).
  80. 1 2 Cohen, Arthur; Brawer, Florence; Kisker, Carrie (2013). The American community college (Sixth edition. ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 9781118449813.
  81. 1 2 Zeitlin, Arthur N.; Markus, Theodore C. (1996). "Should remediation be mandatory in the community college?". Community Review. 14.
  82. ↑ McArthur, Ronald C. (2005). "Faculty -- based advising: An important factor in community college retention.". Community College Review. 32 (4).
  83. ↑ David, Denise L.; Keaton, Rebekah; Morris, Robert; Murphy, James G.; Stapley, Ian (2008). "A space for writing: Developmental writing instruction in a technology-enhanced classroom". Research & Teaching in Developmental Education. 24 (2).
  84. ↑ Boquet, Elizabeth H. (1999). ""Our little secret": A history of writing centers, pre- to post-open admissions". College Composition and Communication. 50 (3).
  85. ↑ Crews, Denise M.; Aragon, Steven R. (2004). "Influence of a community college developmental education writing course on academic performance". Community College Review. 32 (2).
  86. ↑ VanOra, Jason (2012). "The experience of community college for developmental students: challenges and motivations". Community College Enterprise.

Further reading

Primary sources

News articles

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Community colleges in the United States.

As of this edit, this article uses content from "Weekend Group, Governance", which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, but not under the GFDL. All relevant terms must be followed.

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/15/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.