Consensus decision-making

"Consensus" redirects here. For other uses, see Consensus (disambiguation).
This article is about the decision making process. For the distributed computing problem, see Consensus (computer science). For the Wikipedia policy on consensus, see Wikipedia:Consensus.
A Quaker business meeting
Members of the Shimer College Assembly reaching a consensus through deliberation.

Consensus decision-making is a group decision-making process in which group members develop, and agree to support a decision in the best interest of the whole. Consensus may be defined professionally as an acceptable resolution, one that can be supported, even if not the "favourite" of each individual. Consensus is defined by Merriam-Webster as, first, general agreement, and second, group solidarity of belief or sentiment. It has its origin in the Latin word cōnsēnsus (agreement), which is from cōnsentiō meaning literally feel together.[1] It is used to describe both the decision and the process of reaching a decision. Consensus decision-making is thus concerned with the process of deliberating and finalizing a decision, and the social, economic, legal, environmental and political effects of using this process.

Objectives

As a decision-making process, consensus decision-making aims to be:[2]

Alternative to common decision-making practices

Consensus decision-making is an alternative to commonly practiced group decision-making processes.[5] Robert's Rules of Order, for instance, is a guide book used by many organizations. This book allows the structuring of debate and passage of proposals that can be approved through majority vote. It does not emphasize the goal of full agreement. Critics of such a process believe that it can involve adversarial debate and the formation of competing factions. These dynamics may harm group member relationships and undermine the ability of a group to cooperatively implement a contentious decision. Consensus decision-making attempts to address the beliefs of such problems. Proponents claim that outcomes of the consensus process include:[3][6]

Decision rules

The level of agreement necessary to finalize a decision is known as a decision rule.[3][7] Possible decision rules for consensus vary within the following range:

In groups that require unanimous agreement or consent (unanimity) to approve group decisions, if any participant objects, they can block consensus according to the guidelines described below. These groups use the term consensus to denote both the discussion process and the decision rule. Other groups use a consensus process to generate as much agreement as possible, but allow participants to finalize decisions with a decision rule that does not require unanimity. In this case, someone who has a 'block' or strong objection must live with the decision.

Giving consent does not necessarily mean that the proposal being considered is one’s first choice. Group members can vote their consent to a proposal because they choose to cooperate with the direction of the group, rather than insist on their personal preference. Sometimes the vote on a proposal is framed, “Is this proposal something you can live with?” This relaxed threshold for a yes vote can achieve full consent. This full consent, however, does not mean that everyone is in full agreement. Consent must be 'genuine and cannot be obtained by force, duress or fraud.'[8] The values of consensus are also not realized if "consent" is given because participants are frustrated with the process and wanting to move on.Consent - give permission to somebody; it is related to giving a favorable reply [Action Required] Agreement - compatibility of observation or harmony of opinions (need not necessarily be a permission for an action; just support)

Near-unanimous consensus

Healthy consensus decision-making processes usually encourage expression of dissent early, maximizing the chance of accommodating the views of all minorities. Since unanimity may be difficult to achieve, especially in large groups, or consent may be the result of coercion, fear, undue persuasive power or eloquence, inability to comprehend alternatives, or plain impatience with the process of debate, consensus decision-making bodies may use an alternative decision rule, such as Unanimity Minus One (or U−1), or Unanimity Minus Two (or U−2).

Combined with majority or super-majority decision rules

A consensus process can be concluded with a majority or super-majority vote. This is especially common or useful in large and diverse groups that share the values underlying consensus. Consensus process, by definition, seeks the maximum possible levels of agreement or consent. Thus, if a group using a majority vote decision rule is dominated by a majority faction that does not seek the agreement of all participants, the process would not be considered "consensus." Regardless of the decision rule, the process is only "consensus" if it has embodied the value of striving for full agreement or consent. Sometimes the outcomes of consensus can be contrary to majority.

Blocking and other forms of dissent

In order to ensure that the agreement or consent of all participants is valued, many groups choose unanimity or near-unanimity as their decision rule. Groups that require unanimity allow individual participants the option of blocking a group decision. This provision motivates a group to make sure that all group members consent to any new proposal before it is adopted. Proper guidelines for the use of this option, however, are important. The ethics of consensus decision-making encourage participants to place the good of the whole group above their own individual preferences. When there is potential for a block to a group decision, both the group and dissenters in the group are encouraged to collaborate until agreement can be reached. Simply vetoing a decision is not considered a responsible use of consensus blocking. Some common guidelines for the use of consensus blocking include:[3][9]

Dissent options

When a participant does not support a proposal, he or she does not necessarily need to block it. When a call for consensus on a motion is made, a dissenting delegate has one of three options:

Blocks are generally considered an extreme measure—only used when a member feels a proposal endangers the organization or its participants, or violates the mission of the organization (i.e., a principled objection). In some consensus models, a group member opposing a proposal must work with its proponents to find a solution that works for everyone.[14]

Process models

There are multiple stepwise models of how to make decisions by consensus. They vary in the amount of detail the steps describe. They also vary depending on how decisions are finalized. The basic model involves

After a concerted attempt at generating full agreement, the group can then apply its final decision rule to determine if the existing level of agreement is sufficient to finalize a decision.

Specific models

Blocking

Flowchart of basic consensus decision-making process.

Groups that require unanimity commonly use a core set of procedures depicted in this flow chart.[15][16][17]

Once an agenda for discussion has been set and, optionally, the ground rules for the meeting have been agreed upon, each item of the agenda is addressed in turn. Typically, each decision arising from an agenda item follows through a simple structure:

Quaker-based model

Quaker-based consensus[18] is effective because it puts in place a simple, time-tested structure that moves a group towards unity. The Quaker model has been employed in a variety of secular settings. The process allows hearing individual voices while providing a mechanism for dealing with disagreements.[19][20][21]

The following aspects of the Quaker model can be effectively applied in any consensus decision-making process, and is an adaptation prepared by Earlham College:

Key components of Quaker-based consensus include a belief in a common humanity and the ability to decide together. The goal is "unity, not unanimity." Ensuring that group members speak only once until others are heard encourages a diversity of thought. The facilitator is understood as serving the group rather than acting as person-in-charge.[22] In the Quaker model, as with other consensus decision-making processes, by articulating the emerging consensus, members can be clear on the decision, and, as their views have been taken into account, are likely to support it.[23]

CODM model

The consensus-oriented decision-making[24] (CODM) model offers a detailed step-wise description of consensus process. It can be used with any type of decision rule. It outlines the process of how proposals can be collaboratively built with full participation of all stakeholders. This model lets groups be flexible enough to make decisions when they need to, while still following a format based on the primary values of consensus decision-making. The CODM steps include:

  1. Framing the topic
  2. Open discussion
  3. Identifying underlying concerns
  4. Collaborative proposal building
  5. Choosing a direction
  6. Synthesizing a final proposal
  7. Closure

Some of the specific contributions of the CODM model include: 1) Starting important topics with open discussion rather than by presenting a pre-formulated proposal, so that a truly collaborative process can ensue. 2) Gathering a list of all needs and concerns expressed by the group to form criteria for all potential proposals to address. 3) taking turns in a unified attempt to build each proposal idea into the best possible proposal before choosing between them. And 4) using empathy in the closure stage to address any unresolved feelings from the process.

Overlaps with deliberative methods

Consensus decision-making models overlap significantly with deliberative methods, which are processes for structuring discussion that may or may not be a lead-in to a decision.

Roles

The consensus decision-making process often has several roles designed to make the process run more effectively. Although the name and nature of these roles varies from group to group, the most common are the facilitator, a timekeeper, an empath and a secretary or notes taker. Not all decision-making bodies use all of these roles, although the facilitator position is almost always filled, and some groups use supplementary roles, such as a Devil's advocate or greeter. Some decision-making bodies opt to rotate these roles through the group members in order to build the experience and skills of the participants, and prevent any perceived concentration of power.[25]

The common roles in a consensus meeting are:

Tools and methods

Non-verbal techniques

Non-verbal means of expression can also reduce contention or keep issues from spreading out in time across an entire meeting. Various methods of agenda control exist, mostly relying on an explicit chairperson with the power to interrupt off-topic or rambling discourse. This gets more difficult if there is no such chair and accordingly the attitude of the entire group must be assessed by each speaker. Verbal interruptions inevitably become common, possibly in the form of grumbling, muttering, and eventually sharp words, if there is no effective means of cutting off persons making false factual statements or rambling off a topic.

The Levi Hand Signal Technique (LHST) employed by Otesha[29] "allows meeting participants to register their intent to make two distinct kinds of comments: those that are directly in response to someone else's comment ('reactive comments') and those that are separate thoughts ('unique comments'). Intent to register a reactive comment is signaled by a different hand signal than is intent to register a unique comment. We used an index finger for the former and a full hand for the latter." This clears direct responses to a contentious comment faster—and makes it harder to insert it in a long speakers' list and count on a long delay between the utterance and the challenge to create the appearance of agreement.

"Twinkling fingers", similarly, is a nonverbal way of expressing strong agreement, similar to applause but without the interruption and possibly less intimidation of disagreement than applause or cheers can create. The Occupy movement has used these methods.[30]

Closely related are the human microphone methods, which make a large group less reliant on amplification or other technologies, and may require people to exactly repeat or "amplify" comments they may not agree with, so others can hear. Amplifiers are banned in many public places without permits, so this method allows a group to literally 'occupy' a location it would otherwise not be able to meet in. Effectively, the verbal capacity of the people attending is marshaled to amplify one person at a time, with the understanding that any person in the crowd with anything to say would receive a similar courtesy.

For more detail on these methods and their use in specific processes see the section #Hand Signals.

Colored cards

Some consensus decision-making bodies use a system of colored cards to speed up and ease the consensus process. Most often, each member is given a set of three colored cards: red, yellow and green. The cards can be raised during the process to indicate the member's input. Cards can be used during the discussion phase as well as during a call for consensus. The cards have different meanings depending on the phase in which they are used.[14] The meaning of the colors are:

Some decision-making bodies use a modified version of the colored card system with additional colors, such as orange to indicate a non-blocking reservation stronger than a stand-aside.[31]

Hand signals

Hand signals are often used by consensus decision-making bodies as a way for group members to nonverbally indicate their opinions or positions. They have been found useful in facilitating groups of 6 to 250 people. They are particularly useful when the group is multi-lingual.[32]

The nature and meaning of individual gestures varies from group to group. Nonetheless, there is a widely adopted core set of hand signals. These include: wiggling of the fingers on both hands, a gesture sometimes referred to as "twinkling", to indicate agreement; raising a fist or crossing both forearms with hands in fists to indicate a block or strong disagreement; and making a "T" shape with both hands, the "time out" gesture, to call attention to a point of process or order.[27][33][34] One common set of hand signals is called the "Fist-to-Five" or "Fist-of-Five". In this method each member of the group can hold up a fist to indicate blocking consensus, one finger to suggest changes, two fingers to discuss minor issues, three fingers to indicate willingness to let issue pass without further discussion, four fingers to affirm the decision as a good idea, and five fingers to volunteer to take a lead in implementing the decision.[35] A similar set of hand signals are used by the Occupy Wall Street protesters in their group negotiations.[36]

Another common set of hand signals used is the "Thumbs" method, where Thumbs Up=agreement; Thumbs Sideways=have concerns but won't block consensus; and Thumbs Down=I don't agree and I won't accept this proposal. This method is also useful for "straw polls" to take a quick reading of the group's overall sentiment for the active proposal.

A slightly more detailed variation on the thumbs proposal can be used to indicate a 5-point range: (1) Thumb-up=strongly agree, (2) Palm-up=mostly agree, (3) Thumb Sideways="on the fence" or divided feelings, (4) Palm down=mostly disagree, and (5) Thumb down=strongly disagree.

Other useful hand signs include:

Dotmocracy sheets

Completed Dotmocracy sheet

Dotmocracy sheets provide a way to visibly document levels of agreement among participants on a large variety of ideas.[37] Participants write down ideas on paper forms called Dotmocracy sheets and fill in one dot per sheet to record their opinion of each idea on a scale of "strong agreement", "agreement", "neutral", "disagreement", "strong disagreement" or "confusion". Participants sign each sheet they dot and may add brief comments. The result is a graph-like visual representation of the group's collective opinions on each idea.

Fall-back methods

Sometimes some common form of voting such as First-past-the-post is used as a fall-back method when consensus cannot be reached within a given time frame.[38] However, if the potential outcome of the fall-back method can be anticipated, then those who support that outcome have incentives to block consensus so that the fall-back method gets applied. Special fall-back methods have been developed that reduce this incentive.[39] Some specific fall-back methods include:

Criticism

Criticism of blocking

Critics of consensus blocking often observe that the option, while potentially effective for small groups of motivated or trained individuals with a sufficiently high degree of affinity, has a number of possible shortcomings, notably

Groupthink

Consensus seeks to improve solidarity in the long run. Accordingly, it should not be confused with unanimity in the immediate situation, which is often a symptom of groupthink. Studies of effective consensus process usually indicate a shunning of unanimity or "illusion of unanimity"[42] that does not hold up as a group comes under real-world pressure (when dissent reappears). Cory Doctorow, Ralph Nader and other proponents of deliberative democracy or judicial-like methods view the explicit dissent as a symbol of strength. Lawrence Lessig considers it a major strength of working projects like public wikis.[43] Schutt,[44] Starhawk[45] and other practitioners of direct action focus on the hazards of apparent agreement followed by action in which group splits become dangerously obvious.

Unanimous, or apparently unanimous, decisions can have drawbacks.[46] They may be symptoms of a systemic bias, a rigged process (where an agenda is not published in advance or changed when it becomes clear who is present to consent), fear of speaking one's mind, a lack of creativity (to suggest alternatives) or even a lack of courage (to go further along the same road to a more extreme solution that would not achieve unanimous consent).

Unanimity is achieved when the full group apparently consents to a decision. It has disadvantages insofar as further disagreement, improvements or better ideas then remain hidden, but effectively ends the debate moving it to an implementation phase. Some consider all unanimity a form of groupthink, and some experts propose "coding systems...for detecting the illusion of unanimity symptom."[47] In Consensus is not Unanimity, consensus practitioner and activist leader Starhawk wrote:

Many people think of consensus as simply an extended voting method in which every one must cast their votes the same way. Since unanimity of this kind only rarely occurs in groups with more than one member, groups that try to use this kind of process usually end up being either extremely frustrated or coercive. Either decisions are never made (leading to the demise of the group, its conversion into a social group that does not accomplish any tasks), they are made covertly, or some group or individual dominates the rest. Sometimes a majority dominates, sometimes a minority, sometimes an individual who employs "the block". But no matter how it is done, it is NOT consensus.[48]

Confusion between unanimity and consensus, in other words, usually causes consensus decision-making to fail, and the group then either reverts to majority or supermajority rule or disbands.

Most robust models of consensus exclude uniformly unanimous decisions and require at least documentation of minority concerns. Some state clearly that unanimity is not consensus but rather evidence of intimidation, lack of imagination, lack of courage, failure to include all voices, or deliberate exclusion of the contrary views.

Criticism of majority voting processes

Some proponents of consensus decision-making view procedures that use majority rule as undesirable for several reasons. Majority voting is regarded as competitive, rather than cooperative, framing decision-making in a win/lose dichotomy that ignores the possibility of compromise or other mutually beneficial solutions.[49] Carlos Santiago Nino, on the other hand, has argued that majority rule leads to better deliberation practice than the alternatives, because it requires each member of the group to make arguments that appeal to at least half the participants.[50] A. Lijphart reaches the same conclusion about majority rule, noting that majority rule encourages coalition-building.[51] Additionally, opponents of majority rule claim that it can lead to a 'tyranny of the majority', a scenario in which a majority places its interests so far above those of an individual or minority group as to constitute active oppression. Some voting theorists, however, argue that majority rule may actually prevent tyranny of the majority, in part because it maximizes the potential for a minority to form a coalition that can overturn an unsatisfactory decision.[51]

Some advocates of consensus would assert that a majority decision reduces the commitment of each individual decision-maker to the decision. Members of a minority position may feel less commitment to a majority decision, and even majority voters who may have taken their positions along party or bloc lines may have a sense of reduced responsibility for the ultimate decision. The result of this reduced commitment, according to many consensus proponents, is potentially less willingness to defend or act upon the decision.

Historical examples

Perhaps the oldest example of consensus decision-making is the Iroquois Confederacy Grand Council, or Haudenosaunee, which has used consensus in decision-making using a 75% super majority to finalize decisions,[52][53] potentially as early as 1142.[54]

Although the modern popularity of consensus decision-making in Western society dates from the women's liberation movement of the 1970s,[55] and anti-nuclear movement[56] the origins of formal consensus can be traced significantly further back.[57]

The most notable of early Western consensus practitioners are the Religious Society of Friends, or Quakers, who adopted the technique as early as the 17th century. Anabaptists, including some Mennonites, have a history of using consensus decision-making[58] and some believe Anabaptists practiced consensus as early as the Martyrs' Synod of 1527.[57] Some Christians trace consensus decision-making back to the Bible. The Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia references, in particular, Acts 15[59] as an example of consensus in the New Testament. The lack of legitimate consensus process in the unanimous conviction of Jesus by corrupt priests[60] in an illegally held Sanhedrin court (which had rules preventing unanimous conviction in a hurried process) strongly influenced the views of pacifist Protestants, including the Anabaptists (Mennonites/Amish), Quakers and Shakers. In particular it influenced their distrust of expert-led courtrooms and to "be clear about process" and convene in a way that assures that "everyone must be heard".[61]

The Oxford English Dictionary credits Mollie Hunter (1922–2012) with following quotation regarding consensus: "No single group has the right to ignore a consensus of thoughtful opinion"[62]

Specific applications

In Japanese business

Japanese companies normally use consensus decision-making, meaning that unanimous support on the board of directors is sought for any decision.[63] A ringi-sho is a circulation document used to obtain agreement. It must first be signed by the lowest level manager, and then upwards, and may need to be revised and the process started over.[64]

IETF rough consensus model

In the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), decisions are assumed to be taken by rough consensus.[65] The IETF has studiously refrained from defining a mechanical method for verifying such consensus, apparently in the belief that any such codification leads to attempts to "game the system." Instead, a working group (WG) chair or BoF chair is supposed to articulate the "sense of the group."

One tradition in support of rough consensus is the tradition of humming rather than (countable) hand-raising; this allows a group to quickly tell the difference between "one or two objectors" or a "sharply divided community", without making it easy to slip into "majority rule".[66]

Much of the business of the IETF is carried out on mailing lists, where all parties can speak their view at all times.

Social constructivism model

In 2001, Robert Rocco Cottone published a consensus-based model of professional decision-making for counselors and psychologists.[67] Based on social constructivist philosophy, the model operates as a consensus-building model, as the clinician addresses ethical conflicts through a process of negotiating to consensus. Conflicts are resolved by consensually agreed on arbitrators who are defined early in the negotiation process.

BLM collaborative stakeholder engagement

The United States Bureau of Land Management's policy is to seek to use collaborative stakeholder engagement as standard operating practice for natural resources projects, plans, and decision-making except under unusual conditions such as when constrained by law, regulation, or other mandates or when conventional processes are important for establishing new, or reaffirming existing, precedent.[68]

International standardization

The ISO process for adopting new standards is called consensus-based decision-making,[69] In the ISO system consensus is defined as

General agreement, characterized by the absence of sustained opposition to substantial issues by any important part of the concerned interests and by a process that involves seeking to take into account the views of all parties concerned and to reconcile any conflicting arguments.[70]

Where decision-making is subject to ballot by member bodies, a requirement for super-majority support generally applies.[71]

During the ISO Standardization Process, if a Draft International Standard does not receive 75% of the vote, it is not approved, returning to lower stages.[72]

Modern large-group Quaker processes

FUM/FGC Friends conduct business in yearly meetings of perhaps 100 to 500 participants. Over the last three centuries they have evolved a number of practices peculiar to their aims. The following practices are traditional in both New York Yearly Meeting and in New England Yearly Meeting:

Every 20 or 30 years, each yearly meeting's consensus practices are re-codified in a new edition of that yearly meeting's Faith and Practice book.

Additional criticism from biblical and philosophical perspectives

As a notable example of the failure of unanimity in the Western canon, New Testament historian Elaine Pagels cites the Sanhedrin's unanimous vote to convict Jesus of Nazareth.[60] To a Jewish audience familiar with that court's requirement to set free any person unanimously convicted as not having a proper defense, Pagels proposes that the story is intended to signal the injustice of unanimous rush to agreement and Jesus' lack of a defender.[60] She cites the shift away from this view and towards preference for visible unanimity as a factor in later "demonization" of Jews, pagans, heretics (notably Gnostics) and others who disagreed with orthodox views in later Christianity. Unanimity, in other words, became a priority where it had been an anathema.

Some formal models based on graph theory attempt to explore the implications of suppressed dissent and subsequent sabotage of the group as it takes action.[73]

Extremely high-stakes decision-making, such as judicial decisions of appeals courts, always require some such explicit documentation. Consent however is still observed that defies factional explanations. Nearly 40% of Supreme Court of US decisions, for example, are unanimous, though often for widely varying reasons. "Consensus in Supreme Court voting, particularly the extreme consensus of unanimity, has often puzzled Court observers who adhere to ideological accounts of judicial decision making."[74] Historical evidence is mixed on whether particular Justices' views were suppressed in favour of public unity.[75]

Another method to achieve more agreement to satisfy a strict threshold a voting process under which all members of the group have a strategic incentive to agree rather than block.[39] However, this makes it very difficult to tell the difference between those who support the decision and those who merely tactically tolerate it for the incentive. Once they receive that incentive, they may undermine or refuse to implement the agreement in various and non-obvious ways. In general voting systems avoid allowing offering incentives (or "bribes") to change a heartfelt vote.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Consensus.

Notes

  1. ↑ "Consensus - Definition". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2011-08-29.
  2. 1 2 "Consensus Decision-making How to use consensus process". Consensusdecisionmaking.org. Retrieved 2011-08-29.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Hartnett, T. (2011). Consensus-Oriented Decision Making. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada:New Society Publishers.
  4. ↑ Rob Sandelin. "Consensus Basics, Ingredients of successful consensus process". Northwest Intentional Communities Association guide to consensus. Northwest Intentional Communities Association. Archived from the original on February 9, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  5. ↑ "Articles on Meeting Facilitation, Consensus, Santa Cruz California". Groupfacilitation.net. Retrieved 2011-08-29.
  6. ↑ Tree Bressen (2006), Consensus Decision Making
  7. ↑ Kaner, S. (2011). Facilitator's Guide to Participatory Decision-making. San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.
  8. ↑ Norberg v. Wynrib, [1992] 2 S.C.R. 226 (Supreme Court of Canada)
  9. ↑ Christian, D. Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities. (2003). Gabriola Island, BC, Canada:New Society Publishers.
  10. ↑ Richard Bruneau (2003). "If Agreement Cannot Be Reached". Participatory Decision-Making in a Cross-Cultural Context. Canada World Youth. p. 37. Archived from the original (DOC) on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  11. ↑ Consensus Development Project (1998). "FRONTIER: A New Definition". Frontier Education Center. Archived from the original on December 12, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  12. ↑ Rachel Williams; Andrew McLeod (2008). "Consensus Decision-Making" (PDF). Cooperative Starter Series. Northwest Cooperative Development Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 14, 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
  13. ↑ Dorcas; Ellyntari (2004). "Amazing Graces' Guide to Consensus Process". Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  14. 1 2 "The Consensus Decision Process in Cohousing". Canadian Cohousing Network. Archived from the original on February 26, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
  15. ↑ "The Basics of Consensus Decision Making". Consensus Decision Making. ConsensusDecisionMaking.org. 2015-02-17. Retrieved 2015-02-17.
  16. ↑ "What is Consensus?". The Common Place. 2005. Archived from the original on October 15, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  17. ↑ "The Process". Consensus Decision Making. Seeds for Change. 2005-12-01. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  18. 1 2 Quaker Foundations of Leadership (1999). A Comparison of Quaker-based Consensus and Robert's Rules of Order. Richmond, Indiana: Earlham College. Retrieved on 2009-03-01.
  19. ↑ Woodrow, P. (1999). "Building Consensus Among Multiple Parties: The Experience of the Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission." Kellogg-Earlham Program in Quaker Foundations of Leadership. Retrieved on 2009-03-01. Archived August 28, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  20. ↑ Berry, F. and M. Snyder (1999). "Notes prepared for Round table: Teaching Consensus-building in the Classroom." National Conference on Teaching Public Administration, Colorado Springs, Colorado, March 1998. Retrieved on 2009-03-01. Archived October 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  21. 1 2 Consensus Decision Making By Tree Group, Quaker group facilitators. Downloaded 26 Oct. 2014
  22. ↑ Quaker Foundations of Leadership (1999). "Our Distinctive Approach. Richmond, Indiana: Earlham College. Retrieved on 2009-03-01.
  23. ↑ Maine.gov. What is a Consensus Process? State of Maine Best Practices. Retrieved on: 2009-03-01. Archived December 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  24. ↑ http://www.consensusbook.com/ "Consensus-Oriented Decision-Making: The CODM Model for Facilitating Groups to Widespread Agreement"
  25. 1 2 C.T. Lawrence Butler; Amy Rothstein. "On Conflict and Consensus". Food Not Bombs Publishing. Archived from the original on October 26, 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
  26. 1 2 Sheila Kerrigan (2004). "How To Use a Consensus Process To Make Decisions". Community Arts Network. Archived from the original on June 19, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  27. 1 2 Lori Waller. "Guides: Meeting Facilitation". The Otesha Project. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  28. ↑ Berit Lakey (1975). "Meeting Facilitation – The No-Magic Method". Network Service Collaboration. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  29. ↑ "Meeting Facilitation".
  30. ↑ "Otesha UK : Twinkle twinkle little fingers – consensus in action".
  31. ↑ "Color Cards". Mosaic Commons. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  32. ↑ [Jan Havercamp, "Non-verbal communication – a solution for complex group settings", Zhaba facilitators collective, 1999.]
  33. ↑ Jan H; Erikk, Hester, Ralf, Pinda, Anissa and Paxus. "A Handbook for Direct Democracy and the Consensus Decision Process" (PDF). Zhaba Facilitators Collective. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 14, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
  34. ↑ "Hand Signals" (PDF). Seeds for Change. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
  35. ↑ "Guide for Facilitators: Fist-to-Five Consensus-Building". Freechild.org. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
  36. ↑ The Salt Lake Tribune. "Utah Local News - Salt Lake City News, Sports, Archive - The Salt Lake Tribune".
  37. ↑ http://dotmocracy.org Dotmocracy facilitator's resource website
  38. ↑ Saint S, Lawson JR (1994) Rules for reaching consensus: a modern approach to decision making. Pfeiffer, San Diego
  39. 1 2 3 Heitzig J, Simmons FW (2010). Some Chance For Consensus Soc Choice Welf 35.
  40. ↑ The Common Wheel Collective (2002). "Introduction to Consensus". The Collective Book on Collective Process. Archived from the original on 2006-06-30. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  41. ↑ Alan McCluskey (1999). "Consensus building and verbal desperados". Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  42. ↑ Welch Cline, Rebecca J (1990). "Detecting groupthink: Methods for observing the illusion of unanimity". Communication Quarterly. 38 (2): 112–126. doi:10.1080/01463379009369748.
  43. ↑ Joseph Michael Reagle, Jr.; Lawrence Lessig (30 September 2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia. MIT Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
  44. ↑ Schutt, R. (August 31, 2010). Consensus Is Not Unanimity: Making Decisions Cooperatively. The Vernal Education Project. Papers on Nonviolent Action and Cooperative Decision-Making.
  45. ↑ Starhawk Consensus is not unanimity - a practitioner's interpretation of Schutt. Archived February 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  46. ↑ Schermers, Henry G.; Blokker, Niels M. (2011). International Institutional Law. p. 547. ISBN 9004187987. Retrieved 2016-02-29.
  47. ↑ Cline, Rebecca J. Welch (2009). "Detecting groupthink: Methods for observing the illusion of unanimity". Communication Quarterly. 38 (2): 112–126. doi:10.1080/01463379009369748.
  48. ↑ Consensus is not Unanimity Archived April 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine., Starhawk. Archived April 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  49. ↑ Friedrich Degenhardt (2006). "Consensus: a colourful farewell to majority rule". World Council of Churches. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  50. ↑ McGann, Anthony J. The Logic of Democracy: Reconciling, Equality, Deliberation, and Minority Protection. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 2006. ISBN 0-472-06949-7.
  51. 1 2 Anthony J. McGann (2002). "The Tyranny of the Supermajority: How Majority Rule Protects Majorities" (PDF). Center for the Study of Democracy. Retrieved 2008-06-09.
  52. ↑ "How Does the Grand Council Work?". Great Law of Peace. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  53. ↑ M. Paul Keesler (2008). "League of the Iroquois". Mohawk – Discovering the Valley of the Crystals. North Country Press. ISBN 9781595310217. Retrieved 2016-02-29.
  54. ↑ Bruce E. Johansen (1995). "Dating the Iroquois Confederacy". Akwesasne Notes. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  55. ↑ David Graeber; Andrej Grubacic (2004). "Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century". ZNet. Archived from the original on February 17, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  56. ↑ Sanderson Beck (2003). "Anti-Nuclear Protests". Sanderson Beck. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  57. 1 2 Ethan Mitchell (2006). "Participation in Unanimous Decision-Making: The New England Monthly Meetings of Friends". Philica. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  58. ↑ Abe J. Dueck (1990). "Church Leadership: A Historical Perspective". Direction. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  59. ↑ Ralph A Lebold (1989). "Consensus". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Archived from the original on March 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  60. 1 2 3 Elaine Pagels (1996). The Origin of Satan: How Christians Demonized Jews, Pagans, and Heretics. Random House. ISBN 0-679-73118-0. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
  61. ↑ AT 11: Conflict and Church Decision Making: Be clear about process and let everyone be heard | The Anabaptist Network
  62. ↑ "Consensus ad idem: a protocol for development of consensus statements." Can J Surg 2013; 56 (6); 365 http://viewer.zmags.com/publication/30b550e2#/30b550e2/6
  63. ↑ Vogel, Ezra F. (1975). Modern Japanese Organization and Decision-making. p. 121. ISBN 0520054687.
  64. ↑ "Ringi-Sho". Japanese123.com. Archived from the original on August 11, 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-29.
  65. ↑ RFC 2418. "IETF Working Group Guidelines and Procedures."
  66. ↑ "The Tao of IETF: A Novice's Guide to the Internet Engineering Task Force". The Internet Society. 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  67. ↑ Cottone, R. R. (2001). The social constructivism model of ethical decision making. "Journal of Counseling and Development," vol. 79, pp. 39-45.
  68. ↑ "Bureau of Land Management National Natural Resources Policy for Collaborative Stakeholder Engagement and Appropriate Dispute Resolution" (PDF). Bureau of Land Management. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 14, 2012.
  69. ↑ International Organization for Standardization (September 28, 2000) Report of the ISO Secretary-General to the ISO General Assembly.
  70. ↑ "Reaching Consensus". Retrieved December 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  71. ↑ "Directives and Policies". Retrieved December 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  72. ↑ "A Brief History of ISO", Chapter II of "The ISO 14000 Series of Standards", C. J. Martincic.
  73. ↑ "Error:" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 11, 2013.
  74. ↑ "The Norm of Consensus on the U.S. Supreme Court".
  75. ↑ "Consensus, Disorder, and Ideology on the Supreme Court".
  76. ↑ Harvey, Jerry B. (Summer 1974). "The Abilene Paradox and other Meditations on Management". Organizational Dynamics. 3 (1): 63–80. doi:10.1016/0090-2616(74)90005-9.
  77. ↑ "Consensus Team Decision Making". Strategic Leadership and Decision Making. National Defense University. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  78. ↑ Tomalin, Barry; Knicks, Mike (2008). "Consensus or individually driven decision-". The World's Business Cultures and How to Unlock Them. Thorogood Publishing,. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-85418-369-9.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/29/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.