Autonomous cruise control system

Schematic of Intelligent Cruise Control. The red car automatically follows the blue car.

External video

Adaptive Cruise Control Audi example video.

Autonomous cruise control (ACC; also called adaptive cruise control, radar cruise control, or traffic-aware cruise control) is an optional cruise control system for road vehicles that automatically adjusts the vehicle speed to maintain a safe distance from vehicles ahead. It makes no use of satellite or roadside infrastructures nor of any cooperative support from other vehicles. Hence control is imposed based on sensor information from on-board sensors only. Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) further extends the automation of navigation by using information gathered from fixed infrastructure such as satellites and roadside beacons, or mobile infrastructure such as reflectors or transmitters on the back of other vehicles.

Such systems go under many different trade names according to the manufacturer. These systems use either a radar or laser sensor setup allowing the vehicle to slow when approaching another vehicle ahead and accelerate again to the preset speed when traffic allows. ACC technology is widely regarded as a key component of any future generations of intelligent cars. The impact is equally on driver safety as on economising capacity of roads by adjusting the distance between vehicles according to the conditions.

Types

The Jeep adaptive cruise control radar sensor located in the center of the lower grill

Autonomous cruise control on VW Golf

Laser-based systems and radar-based systems compete in quality and price.

Laser-based ACC systems do not detect and track vehicles in adverse weather conditions nor do they reliably track extremely dirty (non-reflective) vehicles. Laser-based sensors must be exposed, the sensor (a fairly large black box) is typically found in the lower grille offset to one side of the vehicle.

Radar-based sensors can be hidden behind plastic fascias; however, the fascias may look different from a vehicle without the feature. For example, Mercedes packages the radar behind the upper grille in the center, and behind a solid plastic panel that has painted slats to simulate the look of the rest of the grille.

Single radar systems are the most common. Systems involving multiple sensors use either two similar hardware sensors like the 2010 Audi A8^[1] or the 2010 Volkswagen Touareg,^[2] or one central long range radar coupled with two short radar sensors placed on the corners of the vehicle like the BMW 5 and 6 series.^[3]

Assisting systems

Radar-based ACC often feature a precrash system, which warns the driver and/or provides brake support if there is a high risk of a collision. Also in certain cars it is incorporated with a lane maintaining system which provides a power steering assist to reduce steering input burden on corners when the cruise control system is activated.

Multi-sensor systems

GPS-aided ACC: the GPS navigation system provides guidance input to the ACC. On the motorway, the car in the front is slowing down, but with turn signal on and it is actually heading for a highway off-ramp. A conventional ACC would sense the car in front was decelerating and it would simply apply brakes accordingly. But with GPS-guided ACC takes into account the approaching highway exit and it simultaneously receives images from a camera attached, e.g., behind the front pane to the rearview mirror. The camera may detect the turn signal from the car ahead. So instead of braking, this new system continues uninterrupted, because it knows that the car in front will exit the lane.^[4]

Timeline

Distronic Plus display on Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)

ACC radar antenna

• 1992: Mitsubishi is the first automaker to offer a Lidar-based distance detection system on the Japanese market Debonair. Marketed as Distance Warning, this early system only warns the driver, without influencing throttle, brakes or gearshifting.^[5][6]
• 1995: Mitsubishi Diamante introduced laser Preview Distance Control. This early system controls speed only through throttle control and downshifting, not by applying the brakes.^[5]
• 1997: Toyota begins to offer a "laser adaptive cruise control" (lidar) system on the Japanese market Celsior.^[7] Like Mitsubishi's 'Preview Distance Control, it controls speed only through throttle control and downshifting, not by applying the brakes.
• 1999: Mercedes introduces Distronic, the first worldwide radar-assisted ACC, on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220) ^[8][9] and the CL-Class.^[10]
• 1999: Jaguar begins offering a radar-based Adaptive Cruise Control system on the Jaguar XK (X100).^[11]
• 1999: Nissan introduces laser (lidar) Adaptive Cruise Control on Japanese market Nissan Cima.^[12]
• 2000: BMW introduces radar Active Cruise Control in Europe on the BMW 7 Series (E38).
• 2000: The Lexus division of Toyota is the first to bring laser adaptive cruise control to the US market in late 2000, with the LS 430's Dynamic Laser Cruise Control system.^[13]
• 2000: Toyota further refines their laser ACC system by adding "brake control", that also applies brakes.^[7]
• 2001: Infiniti introduces laser Intelligent Cruise Control on the 2002 Infiniti Q45 Third generation F50, and 2002 Infiniti QX4.
• 2001: Renault introduces Adaptive Cruise Control on the Renault Vel Satis^[14] (supplied by Bosch^[15])
• 2002: Lancia introduces radar adaptive cruise control (by Bosch) on the Lancia Thesis^[16]
• 2002: Volkswagen introduces radar Adaptive cruise control, manufactured by Autocruise (now TRW), on the Volkswagen Phaeton in first half of 2002.
• 2002: Audi introduces radar Adaptive cruise control (Autocruise) on the Audi A8 in late 2002
• 2003: Cadillac introduces radar adaptive cruise control (ACC) on the Cadillac XLR.^[17]
• 2003: Toyota shifts from laser (lidar) to radar ACC technology: October 2003 radar ACC on the Celsior.^[7] The first Lexus Dynamic Radar Cruise Control and a radar-guided pre-collision system on the Lexus LS(XF30) US market facelift.^[18]
• 2004: Toyota adds "low-speed tracking mode" to the radar ACC on the Crown Majesta.^[7] The low-speed speed tracking mode was a second mode that would warn the driver and provide braking if the car ahead stopped; it could stop the car, but would then deactivate itself.^[19]
• 2005: In the United States, Acura first introduced radar Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) integrated with a Collision avoidance system (Collision Mitigation Braking System (CMBS)) in the late calendar year 2005 in the model year 2006 Acura RL as an optional feature.^[20]
• 2005: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221) refined the Distronic system to completely halt the car if necessary (now called "Distronic Plus". Now offered on E-Class and most Mercedes sedans. In an episode of Top Gear, Jeremy Clarkson demonstrated the effectiveness of the cruise control system in the S-class by coming to a complete halt from motorway speeds to a round-about and getting out, without touching the pedals.
• 2006: Audi introduced Full speed range ACC plus on the Audi Q7. It has low-speed mode, and additional functions to warn the driver of a potential collision, and prepare emergency braking as needed.^[21] The system supplied by Bosch is also available in the 2008 Audi A8, the Audi Q5, 2009 Audi A6 and the new 2010 Audi A8. The Audi A4 is available with an older version of the ACC that does not stop the car completely.
• 2006: Nissan introduced Intelligent Cruise Control with DISTANCE CONTROL ASSIST on Nissan Fuga.^[22] It pushes the gas pedal against the foot when the DVD navigation with GPS determines that an unsafe speed is being maintained. If the Autonomous cruise control system is being used, the Distance Control Assistance will reduce speed automatically, and will warn the driver that an adjustment is being made with an audible bell sound.
• 2006: September 2006 Toyota introduced its "all-speed tracking function" for the Lexus LS 460.^[7] This radar-assisted system maintains continuous control from speeds of 0 km/h to 100 km/h and is designed to work under repeated starting and stopping situations such as highway traffic congestion.^[23]
• 2007: BMW introduced full-speed Active Cruise Control Stop-and-Go on the BMW 5 Series (E60).^[24]
• 2008: Lincoln introduced radar adaptive cruise control on the 2009 Lincoln MKS.
• 2008: SsangYong Motor Company introduced radar Active Cruise Control on the SsangYong Chairman^[25]
• 2009: Hyundai introduces radar Adaptive cruise control on Hyundai Equus in Korean market.
• 2009: ACC and CMBS also became available as optional features in the model year the 2010 Acura MDX^[26] Mid Model Change (MMC) and the newly introduced model year 2010 Acura ZDX.^[27]
• 2010: Audi world first GPS-guided radar ACC on Audi A8#D4^[4]
• 2010: Jeep introduces Adaptive Cruise Control on the 2011 Jeep Grand Cherokee^[28]
• 2013: Mercedes introduced DISTRONIC PLUS with Steering Assist (traffic jam assist) on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)^[29]
• 2013: BMW introduced Active Cruise Control with Traffic Jam Assistant^[30]
• 2014: Chrysler introduces full speed range radar Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop+ on the 2015 Chrysler 200.
• 2014: Tesla introduces autopilot feature to production Model S cars, enabling semi-autonomous cruise control.^[31][32][33]
• 2015: Ford introduces first pickup truck with Adaptive Cruise Control on the 2015 Ford F150

Vehicle models supporting adaptive cruise control

There are three main categories of ACC.

1. Vehicles with Full Speed Range 0MPH adaptive cruise control are able to bring the car to a full stop to 0 mph & need to be re-activated to continue moving with something like a tap of the gas pedal.
2. Vehicles with Traffic Jam Assist / Stop & Go (there isn't yet a good industry phrase as they are all proprietary) will auto resume from standstill to creep with stop & go traffic.
3. Vehicles with Partial cruise control cuts off & turns off below a set minimum speed, requiring driver intervention.

Make	Full speed range ACC		Partial cruise control
	Models	Notes	Models	Notes
Aftermarket			Any Vehicle 1990+ [34]	Uses OpenCV, Wikispeedia, no braking. Motor Authority Review [35]
Acura	RLX (2014+), MDX (2014+), TLX (2015+)		2005 RL, MDX, ZDX, 2016 MDX is 0 mph type, 2016 ILX,[36] RDX[37]
Alfa Romeo	Giulia (2016+)	Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go [38]
Audi	A8, A7 (2010+), A6 (2011+); Q7 (2007+), A3 (2013+), Q5 (2013+)	Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go	A3, A4 (see a demonstration on YouTube), A5, Q5, A6, A8 (also uses data from navigation and front camera sensors),[39] Q7
Bentley	Continental GT (2009+)	Follow-to-Stop option
BMW	5-series (2007+), 7-series (2009+), X5 (2011+)[40] excl Diesel, 3-series (2013+), i3 (2014+), X3 (2014+)	Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go	Series 7, 5, 6, 3 (2000+), Mini (2014+)	(only as an option, Stop & Go Variant available on 3, 5, 6 and 7 models) (Active Cruise Control)
Buick			Lacrosse (2014+) [41]
Cadillac	XTS, ATS, SRX (2013+), ELR, Escalade (2015+ Premium trim)	Also includes full power automatic braking under 20 mph	2004 XLR, 2005 STS, 2006 DTS (shuts off below 25 mph)
Chevrolet	Impala (2014+), Malibu (2016+), Volt (2017+)		Tahoe/Suburban (2015+)
Chrysler	200c (2015+), 300 (2015+ in S, C, or C Platinum trims), Pacifica (2015+ in Touring L Plus or Limited trims)	Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go.[42]	2007-2014 300C	laser, for a limited time, now uses a Bosch radar-based system
Dodge			2011 Charger, 2011 Durango	radar, by Bosch
Ford	Everest (2015+, Trend and Titanium models only),[43] Fusion (2017+)		2015+ F150 [44] 2011+Explorer, 2013+ Ford FLEX, 2006 Mondeo, 2013 Kuga, 2013+ Fusion, S-Max, Galaxy, 2010+ Taurus, 2011+ Edge	Disables and does not work or brake under 20 mph; - Radar[45] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
Honda	Civic (2016+)	Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) with Low-Speed Follow	2003 Inspire, 2005 Legend, 2013 Accord (USA), 2007 CR-V series III, 2015 Honda CRV, 2016 Honda Pilot [46]	Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Mitigating Braking System with Honda Sensing [47]
Hyundai	Azera (2011+), Equus (2012+), Genesis (2015+), Sonata (2015+), Santa Fe (2017+), Santa Fe Sport (2017+), Ioniq (2017+)		Genesis (2010+), Elantra (2017+)
Infiniti	EX (2010+)	older, laser based system	2006 EX, M, Q45, QX56, G35, FX35/45/50, G37	shuts off below 3 mph, EX: in North America as an option, shuts off below 40 km/h
Jaguar			1999 XK-R, S-Type, XJ, XF
Jeep	Cherokee (2014+, Limited and TrailHawk Models), Grand Cherokee (2012+)[48]	Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) - Stop/Start again option on 2017 models but not prior models.	2011-2013 Grand Cherokee (Option on Limited & Overland, standard on Summit)	radar, by Bosch disengages below 15 mph[49]
Kia	Cadenza (2014+), Sedona (2015+), K900 (2015+), Optima (2016+), Sorento (2016+)	Advanced Smart Cruise Control (ASCC)
Land Rover	Range Rover (2013+)		Range Rover Sport
Lincoln		Disables and does not work or brake under 20 mph	MKS (2009+), MKT (2010+), MKX (2011+), MKZ (2013+), MKC (2015+)	Radar[45] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
Lexus	LS 460 (2006+), GS hybrid (2013+), RX (2016+), RX hybrid (2016+), NX (2016+), NX hybrid (2016+)	Dynamic Radar Cruise Control LS 460 full ACC not available in US	2000 LS430/460 (laser and radar), RX (laser and radar), GS, IS, ES 350, and LX 570 (shuts off below 30 mph)
Mazda			Mazda6 (2014+), Mazda3, CX-5 (2016+)	Radar Cruise Control and Forward Obstruction Warning[50]
Mitsubishi	Outlander (2014+)
Mercedes-Benz	S (2006+), B, E, CLS, CL (2009+); A, CLA, M, G, GL (2013+)	Distronic Plus	1998 S, E, CLS, SL, CL, M, GL, CLK, 2012 C	Distronic
Nissan	Murano (2015+), Maxima (2016+), Altima (2016+)	Stops vehicle but resets after 3 seconds, requiring brake application to sit still and setting cruise speed again.	1998 Cima, Primera T-Spec Models	Intelligent Cruise Control
Porsche	Panamera (2010+); Cayenne (2011+), Cayman (2013+), Boxster(2012+)	Porsche Active Safe (PAS), PDK transmission only.
Seat	León (2012+), Ateca [51]
Skoda	Octavia (2013+), Fabia (2014+)
Subaru	Legacy, Outback (2013+), Forester (2014+), Impreza (2015+), WRX (2016+)	0 mph EyeSight[52][53] Non-Radar Camera System
Suzuki			Vitara (2015+), Sx4 Scross (2016+)	radar
Tesla	Model S(late 2014+), Model X	Traffic-Aware Cruise Control (TACC)[54]
Toyota	Prius (2016+), C-HR (2018+)[55]		1997 Celsior, 2004 Sienna (XLE Limited Edition), Avalon, Sequoia (Platinum Edition), Avensis, 2009 Corolla (Japan),[56] 2010 Prius, 2103+ Prius v,[57] 2014+ Highlander,[58] 2015+ Camry,[59] 2016+ RAV4[60]	Dynamic Laser Cruise Control (DLCC) on 2009+ Sienna XLE Limited, Avalon Limited and Sequoia Platinum shuts off below 25 mph (US)[61]
Vauxhall / Opel			Insignia, Zafira Tourer (on selected variants of SE, SRi, Elite, VXR), Astra
Volkswagen	Phaeton (2010+), Passat B8 (2014+), Touareg (2011+) Golf Mk7 (2013+), Polo (2014+), Jetta (2016+ SEL Trim)		Passat, Phaeton all generations, Touareg
Volvo	All Volvo models 2015+ Also before 2015 ACC was available on V40, S60,[62] V60, XC60, V70, XC70 and S80	ACC also includes automatic braking. Newest models feature full power auto-brake with pedestrian and cyclist detection.

See also

• Autonomous car
• Intelligent car
• IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society
• Lane departure warning system
• Precrash system

References

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External links

• Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control: Human Factors Analysis—Federal Highway Administration