Patterns in the menstrual cycle

Research has been conducted on how different aspects of a human female's life vary across her menstrual cycle.

Sexuality

Attractiveness

At different points in a woman's menstrual cycle her attractiveness to men differs, with peak attractiveness occurring during her 'fertile window'.[1] A woman is seen as most attractive when leading up to her ovulatory cycle, with high oestrogen levels, while seen as less attractive post ovulation, with high progesterone levels.[1][2] Women experience subtle changes to their facial appearance, vocal quality and gait when they are within their fertile window.[1] One study found that when in ovulation lap dancers receive the greatest amount of tips.[1][3] Changes across the cycle are more subtle in humans than in other mammalian species; who may experience sexual swellings when fertile while being unattractive and unreceptive towards males when non-fertile.[1]

Sexual behaviour

Sexual feelings and behaviours change around the menstrual cycle.[4][5][6] Before and during ovulation, high levels of oestrogen and androgens result in women having an increased interest in sexual activity.[4] Unlike other animal species, women do show interest in sex across all days of the menstrual cycle, when fertility is both high and low.[5]

When woman are most fertile, they avoid situations that may result in sexual coercion.[6]

Mate choice

Behaviour towards potential mating partners changes during different phases of the menstrual cycle.[7][8][9] Near ovulation women are found to have increased physical attraction and interest in attending social gatherings with men.[6] The intensity of mate guarding differs across the phases of the cycle, with increased mate guarding occurring when woman are fertile, in order to keep other males away.[9][10][11]

During the fertile phase, women experience more attraction, fantasies and sexual interest for extra pair men but not for primary partners.[6][9][12] They also engage in extra-pair flirtations and demonstrate a preference for extra pair copulation.[9][12]

Voice

Preferences for voice pitch change across the cycle.[12] When seeking a short term mating partner, women prefer a male with a low voice pitch, particularly during the fertile phase.[12] During the late follicular phase, women demonstrate a preference for mates with a masculine, deep voice.[1]

Research has also been conducted on the attractiveness of the female voice throughout the cycle.[13] During their most fertile phase of the menstrual cycle, female’s voices are rated as significantly more attractive.[13] This effect is not found with women on the pill.[13]

Odour

Women’s preference for male’s body odour changes across the menstrual cycle.[14] During their most fertile phase of the menstrual cycle women show preference for the odour of symmetrical men.[9] This effect is not found for women on the pill.[15] Also, during the late follicular and ovulatory phases, women prefer the scent of masculine men.[12] The scent of androsterone (responsible for testosterone levels) is highly preferred by women during the peak of their fertility in the menstrual cycle.[12] Moreover, women demonstrate preference for men with a scent that indicates developmental stability.[12]

In regards to women's smell across the cycle, men have been found to use olfactory cues in order to know if a woman is ovulating.[14] Using a rating of women’s odours, women who are ovulating are rated as more attractive by men.[14] Men demonstrate preferences for the scent of fertile women.[14]

Face

Preferences for facial features in mates also change across the cycle.[12] There has been no difference found in preference for long-term mating partners during the menstrual cycle, however those seeking a short-term relationship were more likely to choose a partner with more masculine features than usual.[1][9] This was found to be the case especially during the woman’s high conception risk stage and when salivary testosterone was high.[16] However, when women are in the luteal (non-fertile) phase, they prefer men (and females) with more feminine faces.[1] A preference is also shown for self-resembling faces and apparent health in faces during the luteal phase of the cycle.[17] Apparent health preferences were found to be strongest when progesterone levels were high.[17] Additionally, during the fertile phase, women show a preference for men with darker skin pigmentation.[12] Research on facial symmetry is mixed.[18]

Body

Preferences for body features change during the fertile phase of the cycle.[12] Women seeking a short-term partner demonstrate a preference for taller and muscular males.[12] Women also show preferences of males with masculine bodies at peak fertility.[12][16] Mixed research has been found regarding body symmetry preferences throughout different phases of the cycle.[12]

Personality

In short term mates, during the fertile phase, woman show more attraction to dominant men who displayed social presence.[12] For long term mates, shifts in desired trait preferences do not occur throughout the cycle.[12]

Behaviour

Consumer purchases

Economic spending patterns of women may change with the phase within their menstrual cycle.[19] One area of spending that has been found to be impacted is the control of spending across the phases. Among non-pill users the luteal phase corresponds to increased impulsivity in spending behaviour, which decreases during the follicular phase.[19]

Research into control of spending habits across the cycle observed a significant degree of variability with regard to bidding behaviour across the menstrual cycle within both pill users[20] as well as naturally cycling non-pill users.[21] One study examined self-control of spending across the cycle with regard to bidding behaviours.[21] It was found that when a woman experiences a natural cycle bids are significantly more, than the bids of men, across the whole cycle except for the ovulatory phase.[21] The research has produced mixed results with non-pill users demonstrating a flat pattern of bidding behaviours across the menstrual cycle.[20]

Research has also investigated how women's food and clothing choice also appears to differ across the menstrual cycle. A study found that food related consumption is greater than appearance related consumption in the luteal phase, where as in the fertile phase appearance related consumption is greater.[22] The fertile phase lead to a significant increase for sexy and attention grabbing items of clothing but does not significantly impact consumption of make-up related products.[22] It was additionally found that the hormonal changes that accompany the different phases of the menstrual cycle, specifically progesterone and oestrogen, have the same pattern as money spent on food related consumption and appearance related consumption respectively.[22]

Clothing choice

The choices women make regarding attire have been found to differ according to their position within the menstrual cycle.[23] Women use their appearance in the same way a deer uses antlers for intra-sexual competition, rather than how a peacock uses his tail for courtship.[23] A pair of studies found that women are seen to prefer clothing that is more revealing and sexy when they are at peak fertility.[23][24] This is demonstrated within hypothetical situations[24] as well as deliberate outfit choices.[23] Additionally such appearance enhancing behaviours are more prevalent when primed by attractive rivals.[23] One aspect of ornamentation difference around ovulation that has been found is the amount of skin that is shown, for example a skirt at high fertility where pants had been worn at low fertility.[25]

Women have been found to pay more attention to grooming, makeup and clothing when they are within their fertile window.[1]

Interpersonal relationships

An increase in negative interpersonal relationships has been observed in women, especially during PMS, with an increase in undesirable social behaviour and increased passivity.[26] When PMS is experienced in the luteal phase an increase in negative interpersonal interactions has been observed.[26] Some women have been observed to decrease their social behaviours, becoming more withdrawn, during the luteal phase.[26] PMS symptomatology has been described by 60% of women in one study to include social problems, with a desire for an increase in time alone occurring during the luneal phase.[26]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Levay, Simon; Baldwin, Janice; Baldwin, John (2015). "Attraction, Arousal, and Response". Discovering Human Sexuality (3rd ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-60535-275-6.
  2. ↑ Puts, David A.; Bailey, Drew H.; Cárdenas, Rodrigo A.; Burriss, Robert P.; Welling, Lisa L. M.; Wheatley, John R.; Dawood, Khytam (2013-01-01). "Women's attractiveness changes with estradiol and progesterone across the ovulatory cycle". Hormones and Behavior. 63 (1): 13–19. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.11.007.
  3. ↑ Miller, Geoffrey; Tybur, Joshua M.; Jordan, Brent D. (2007-11-01). "Ovulatory cycle effects on tip earnings by lap dancers: economic evidence for human estrus?☆". Evolution and Human Behavior. 28 (6): 375–381. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.06.002. ISSN 1090-5138.
  4. 1 2 Levay, Simon; Baldwin, Janice; Baldwin, John (2015). "Women's Bodies". Discovering Human Sexuality. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 44. ISBN 9781605352756.
  5. 1 2 Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Background and Overview of the Book". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780195340990.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Women's Estrus, Pair Bonding and Extra-Pair Sex". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 246–256. ISBN 9780195340990.
  7. ↑ Gildersleeve, Kelly; Haselton, Martie G.; Fales, Melissa R. "Meta-analyses and p-curves support robust cycle shifts in women's mate preferences: Reply to Wood and Carden (2014) and Harris, Pashler, and Mickes (2014).". Psychological Bulletin. 140 (5): 1272–1280. doi:10.1037/a0037714.
  8. ↑ Gildersleeve, Kelly; DeBruine, Lisa; Haselton, Martie G.; Frederick, David A.; Penton-Voak, Ian S.; Jones, Benedict C.; Perrett, David I. (2013-04-11). "Shifts in Women's Mate Preferences Across the Ovulatory Cycle: A Critique of Harris (2011) and Harris (2012)". Sex Roles. 69 (9-10): 516–524. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0273-4. ISSN 0360-0025.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Levay, Simon; Valente, Sharon M (2006). "Sexual Attraction and Arousal". Human Sexuality. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc. pp. 217–253. ISBN 0878934650.
  10. ↑ Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Coevolutionary Processes". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 290–321. ISBN 9780195340990.
  11. ↑ Levay, Simon; Baldwin, Janice; Baldwin, John (2015). "Sex and Evolution". Discovering Human Sexuality. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 565. ISBN 9781605352756.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Women's Estrus". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 207–234. ISBN 9780195340990.
  13. 1 2 3 Pipitone, R. Nathan; Gallup, Gordon G. (2008-07-01). "Women's voice attractiveness varies across the menstrual cycle". Evolution and Human Behavior. 29 (4): 268–274. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.02.001. ISSN 1090-5138.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Concealed Fertility". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 266–290. ISBN 9780195340990.
  15. ↑ Gangestad, Steven W.; Thornhill, Randy (1998-05-22). "Menstrual cycle variation in women's preferences for the scent of symmetrical men". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 265 (1399): 927–933. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0380. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1689051Freely accessible. PMID 9633114.
  16. 1 2 DeBruine, Lisa; Jones, Benedict C.; Frederick, David A.; Haselton, Martie G.; Penton-Voak, Ian S.; Perrett, David I. (2010-01-01). "Evidence for menstrual cycle shifts in women's preferences for masculinity: a response to Harris (in press) "Menstrual cycle and facial preferences reconsidered"". Evolutionary Psychology: An International Journal of Evolutionary Approaches to Psychology and Behavior. 8 (4): 768–775. doi:10.1177/147470491000800416. ISSN 1474-7049. PMID 22947833.
  17. 1 2 Jones, Benedict C.; DeBruine, Lisa M.; Perrett, David I.; Little, Anthony C.; Feinberg, David R.; Smith, Miriam J. Law (2008-01-12). "Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Face Preferences". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 37 (1): 78–84. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9268-y. ISSN 0004-0002.
  18. ↑ Gildersleeve, Kelly; Haselton, Martie G.; Fales, Melissa R. "Do women's mate preferences change across the ovulatory cycle? A meta-analytic review.". Psychological Bulletin. 140 (5): 1205–1259. doi:10.1037/a0035438.
  19. 1 2 Pine, Karen J.; Fletcher, Ben (C) (2011-01-01). "Women's spending behaviour is menstrual-cycle sensitive". Personality and Individual Differences. 50 (1): 74–78. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.026.
  20. 1 2 Chen, Yan; Katuščák, Peter; Ozdenoren, Emre (2013-01-01). "Why canʼt a woman bid more like a man?". Games and Economic Behavior. 77 (1): 181–213. doi:10.1016/j.geb.2012.10.002.
  21. 1 2 3 Pearson, Matthew; Schipper, Burkhard C. (2013-03-01). "Menstrual cycle and competitive bidding". Games and Economic Behavior. 78: 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.geb.2012.10.008.
  22. 1 2 3 Saad, Gad; Stenstrom, Eric (2012-01-01). "Calories, beauty, and ovulation: The effects of the menstrual cycle on food and appearance-related consumption". Journal of Consumer Psychology. Brand Insights from Psychological and Neurophysiological Perspectives. 22 (1): 102–113. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.10.001.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Durante, Kristina M.; Griskevicius, Vladas; Hill, Sarah E.; Perilloux, Carin; Li, Norman P. (2011-04-01). "Ovulation, Female Competition, and Product Choice: Hormonal Influences on Consumer Behavior". Journal of Consumer Research. 37 (6): 921–934. doi:10.1086/656575. ISSN 0093-5301.
  24. 1 2 Durante, Kristina M.; Li, Norman P.; Haselton, Martie G. (2008-11-01). "Changes in Women's Choice of Dress Across the Ovulatory Cycle: Naturalistic and Laboratory Task-Based Evidence". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 34 (11): 1451–1460. doi:10.1177/0146167208323103. ISSN 0146-1672. PMID 18719219.
  25. ↑ Haselton, Martie G.; Mortezaie, Mina; Pillsworth, Elizabeth G.; Bleske-Rechek, April; Frederick, David A. (2007-01-01). "Ovulatory shifts in human female ornamentation: Near ovulation, women dress to impress". Hormones and Behavior. 51 (1): 40–45. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.07.007.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Gailliot, Matthew T.; Hildebrandt, Britny; Eckel, Lisa A.; Baumeister, Roy F. "A theory of limited metabolic energy and premenstrual syndrome symptoms: Increased metabolic demands during the luteal phase divert metabolic resources from and impair self-control.". Review of General Psychology. 14 (3): 269–282. doi:10.1037/a0018525.
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