Persian people

This article is about the Persian ethnic group. For other uses, see Persian.
Persians
Regions with significant populations
 Iran 49,312,834 (61–65% of the total population)[1][2]
Languages
Persian, and closely related languages.
Religion
Primarily Shia Islam, as well as Irreligion, Christianity, the Bahá'í faith, Sunni Islam, Sufism, Judaism, and Zorastrianism.
Related ethnic groups
Iranian peoples, Azerbaijanis

The Persians (Persian: پارسیان‎‎ – Pārsiān) are an Iranian ethnic group native to Iran, who share a common ancestry and cultural system.[3] They are native speakers of the Persian language,[4][5] as well as closely related dialects and languages.[6][7]

The ancient Persians were originally a nomadic branch of the Iranians who entered modern-day Iran by the early 10th century BC.[8][9] Together with their compatriot allies, they established and ruled some of the world's most powerful empires,[10][11] well-recognized for their massive cultural, political and social influence covering much of the territory and population of the ancient world.[12][13]

Persians contributed greatly in various forms of art, including carpet-waving, pottery, mosaic, miniature painting, calligraphy, and music. They own one of the world's oldest and richest literary traditions, and have also left significant influences in architectural and scientific concepts.

Etymology

The English term Persian derives from Latin *Persia, itself deriving from Greek *Persís (Περσίς),[14] a Hellenized form of Old Persian *Pārsa (𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿).[15] In the Bible, it is referred to as Parás (Hebrew: פָּרָס‎‎)—sometimes Paras ve Madai (פרס ו מדי; "Persia and Media")—within the books of Esther, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemya.

Usage

The term Persia was adopted through Greek sources, used as an official name for the entire Iran for many years. Thus, the term Persian came to refer to all inhabitants of the country.

Some medieval and early modern Islamic sources also used cognates of the term Persian to refer to various Iranian peoples, including speakers of the Chorasmian language,[16] the Tapurian language,[17] and the Old Azeri language.[18] The Iraqi historian Al-Masudi (896–956) refers to Pahlavi (Middle Persian), Dari (Early Modern Persian) and Azari (the Old Azeri language) as dialects of the Persian language.[19] Lady Mary (Leonora Woulfe) Sheil, in her observation of Iran during the Qajar era, describes Persians, Kurds and Leks to identify themselves as "descendants of the ancient Persians".[20]

On 21 March 1935, the ruler of the country, Reza Shah, issued a decree asking the international community to use the term Iran—which was the native name of the country—in formal correspondence. Since then, the term Iranian and Persian were applied interchangeably to the population of Iran. The term Persian is still historically used to designate the predominant population of the Iranian people living in the Iranian cultural continent.[21][22][23][24]

History

The earliest known written record attributed to the Persians is from the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, an Assyrian inscription from the mid-9th century BC,[25][26] found at Nimrud. The inscription mentions Parsua (presumed to mean "border" or "borderland")[27] as a tribal chiefdom (860–600 BC)[28] located near Lake Urmia in the region between the Avroman range and Sena Dezh (Central Zagros),[29] in modern-day northwestern Iran.

Costumes of an ancient Persian nobleman and soldiers.

The ancient Persians were originally a nomadic branch of the Iranian population that, in the early 10th century BC, settled to the northwest of modern-day Iran.[8][9][30][31] They were initially dominated by the Assyrians for much of the first three centuries after arriving in the region; but however, they played a major role in the downfall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[32][33] The Medes, another branch of this population, founded the unified empire of Media as the region's dominant cultural and political power in c. 625 BC.[10] Meanwhile, the Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids formed a vassal state to the central Median power. In c. 552 BC, the Achaemenids began a revolution which eventually led to the conquest of the empire by Cyrus II in c. 550 BC. They spread their influence to the rest of what is called the Iranian Plateau, and assimilated with the non-Iranian indigenous groups of the region, including the Elamites and Mannaeans.[34][35][36]

Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent.

At its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from parts of Eastern Europe in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen.[11] The Achaemenids developed the infrastructure to support their growing influence, including the creation of Pasargadae and the opulent city of Persepolis.[37] The empire extended as far as the limits of the Greek city states in modern-day mainland Greece, where the Persians and Athenians influenced each other in what is essentially a reciprocal cultural exchange.[38] Its legacy and impact on the kingdom of Macedon was also notably huge,[13] even for centuries after the withdrawal of the Persians from Europe following the Greco-Persian Wars.[13] The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, but reemerged shortly after as the Parthian Empire.

Until the Parthian era, the Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value; but however, it did not yet have a political import.[39] Parthian, a mutually intelligible language with the Middle Persian language,[40] became an official language of the Parthian Empire. It had influences on the modern Persian language,[41][42][43] as well as a major influence on the neighboring Armenian language.

Roman emperor Valerian and Philip the Arab accepting defeat by the Sassanid emperor Shapur I.

By the time of the Sassanian Empire, a national culture which was fully aware of being Iranian took shape, partially motivated by restoration and revival of the wisdom of "the old sages" (Middle Persian: dānāgān pēšēnīgān).[39] Other aspects of this national culture included the glorification of a great heroic past and an archaizing spirit.[39] Throughout the period, the Iranian identity reached its height in every aspect.[39] Middle Persian, which is the immediate ancestor of Modern Persian and a variety of other Iranian dialects,[41][44][45] became the official language of the empire[46] and was greatly diffused among Iranians.[39]

The Parthians and the Sassanids would also extensively interact with the Romans culturally. The Roman-Sassanid Wars and the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars would shape the landscape of Western Asia, Europe, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin for centuries. For a period of over 400 years, the neighboring Byzantines and Sassanids were recognized as the two leading powers in the world.[47][48][49]

The intermingling of Persians, Medes, Parthians, Bactrians and indigenous "pre-Iranian" people of Iran (incl. the Elamites) gained more ground, and a homogeneous Iranian identity was created to the extent that all were just called Iranians, irrespective of clannish affiliations and regional linguistic or dialectical alterities. Furthermore, the process of incomers' assimilation which had been started with the Greeks, continued in the face of Arab, Mongol and Turkic invasions and proceeded right up to Islamic times.[34][50]

Anthropology

In modern-day Iran, Persians make up the majority of the population.[51] They speak the western dialects and varieties of the modern Persian language,[52] which also serves as the country's official language.[53]

Persian language

Main article: Persian language

The Persian language and its various varieties are part of the Western group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is classified as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of the Sassanid Empire, itself a continuation of Old Persian, which was spoken by the time of the Achaemenid Empire.[54][55][56]

Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which is attested in original texts.[57] Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now present-day Iran, Armenia, Romania (Gherla),[58][59] Iraq, Turkey and Egypt.[60][61] The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscription.[62]

Related groups

There are several peoples and communities which are either ethnically or linguistically related to the Persian people, living within various regions of modern-day Iran, the Caucasus, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, and the Persian Gulf states.[63]

The Lurs, living primarily in western and southwestern Iran, are another ethnic Iranian people often associated with Persians and Kurds.[64] They speak various dialects of the Lurish language, which is closely related to Middle Persian.[65][66]

The Caucasian Tat people—concentrated in Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russia (Dagestan)—are an ethnic Iranian people whose origin is traced to the merchants who settled in the region by the time of the Sassanid Empire.[67] They speak the Caucasian Tat language, which is considered a variant of Persian.

The Tajiks, Farsiwan, Hazara and Aimaq are a number of diverse Persian-speaking ethnic groups living predominantly in Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. They speak various dialects of Dari and Tajik,[52] which are two other varieties of the modern Persian language.[68]

Culture

From the early inhabitants of Persis, to the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanid empires, to the neighbouring Greek city states,[69] the kingdom of Macedon,[13] the caliphates and the Islamic world,[70][71] all the way to the modern day Iran and Western Europe,[72] and such far places as those found in India,[73] Asia,[74] and Indonesia, Persian culture has been either recognized, incorporated, adopted, or celebrated.[70][75] This is due mainly to its geopolitical conditions, and its intricate relationship with the ever-changing political arena once as dominant as the Achaemenid Empire.

Art

Main articles: Persian art and Persian miniature
Sassanid floor mosaic detail from the palace of Shapur I.

The artistic heritage of the Persians is eclectic, and includes major contributions from both the east and the west. Persian art borrowed heavily from the indigenous Elamite civilization and Mesopotamia, and later from the Hellenistic civilization. In addition, due to the somewhat central location of Iran, it has served as a fusion point between eastern and western traditions.

Persians have contributed in various forms of art, including carpet-waving, calligraphy, miniature-painting, illustrated manuscripts, glasswork, lacquer-work, khatam (a native form of marquetry), metalwork, pottery, mosaic, and textile design.[76]

Literature

Main article: Persian literature

The Persian language is known to have one of the world's oldest and most powerful literatures,[77] with prominent medieval poets such as Ferdowsi, Roudaki, Rumi, Hafez Shirazi, Saadi Shirazi, Nizami Ganjavi, Omar Khayyam, and Attar of Nishapur.

Not all Persian literature is written in Persian, as some consider works written by Persians in other languages—such as Greek and Arabic—to be included. At the same time, not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians, as Turkic, Caucasian, and Indic poets and writers have also used the Persian language in the environment of Persianate cultures.

One of the most notable Persian literary works is the long epic poem Šāhnāme ("The King Book") by the 10th-century eminent poet Ferdowsi, which is considered the national epic of the historical region of Greater Iran.

Prominent writers such as Sadegh Hedayat, Forough Farrokhzad, Ahmad Shamlu, Simin Daneshvar, Akhavan-Sales and Parvin E'tesami have also had major contributions to the contemporary Persian literature.

Architecture

The most prominent examples of ancient Persian architecture are the work of the Achaemenids hailing from Persis. The quintessential feature of the Achaemenid architecture was its eclectic nature, with elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek all incorporated.[78] Achaemenid architectural heritage, beginning with the expansion of the empire around 550 BC, was a period of artistic growth that left an extraordinary architectural legacy ranging from Cyrus the Great's solemn tomb in Pasargadae to the splendid structures of the opulent city of Persepolis, and such historical sites as Naqsh-e Rustam.[79]

During the Sassanid era, multiple architectural projects took place, some of which are still existing, including the Palace of Ardeshir, the Sarvestan Palace, the castle fortifications in Derbent (North Caucasus, now part of Russia), and the ruins at Taq Bostan. The Bam Citadel, a massive structure at 1,940,000 square feet (180,000 m2) constructed on the Silk Road in Bam, is from around the 5th century BC.[80]

Modern contemporary architectural projects influenced by the ancient Achaemenid architecture include the Mausoleum of Ferdowsi erected under the reign of Reza Shah in Tus, the Azadi Tower erected in 1971 in Tehran, and the Dariush Grand Hotel located on Kish Island in the Persian Gulf.

Gardens

Main article: Persian Gardens

Xenophon, in his Oeconomicus,[81] states:

The Great King [Cyrus II]...in all the districts he resides in and visits, takes care that there are paradises as they [Persians] call them, full of the good and beautiful things that the soil produce.

For the Achaemenid monarchs, gardens assumed an important place.[81] Persian gardens utilized the Achaemenid knowledge of water technologies,[82] as they utilized aqueducts, earliest recorded gravity-fed water rills, and basins arranged in a geometric system. The enclosure of this symmetrically arranged planting and irrigation, by an infrastructure such as a building or a palace created the impression of "paradise".[83] Parthians and Sassanids later added their own modifications to the original Achaemenid design.[81] Later, the quadripartite design (Čārbāq) of Persian gardens was reinterpreted by the Muslim world.

Today, some of the best examples of the traditional gardens can be seen in such places as the Shazdeh Garden, Golshan Garden, Qavam House, Fin Garden, Tomb of Hafez, Eram Garden, Tabatabaei House, and the Borujerdis House.

Music

A carved relief from Taq Bostan, depicting Sassanid women playing the chang—a musical instrument utilizing five strings under tension to create musical tones.[84]

According to the accounts reported by Xenophon, a great number of singers were present at the Achaemenid court. However, little information is available from the music of that era. Sassanid music, however, was influential, and was later adopted in the subsequent eras.[85] In traditional Sassanid music, the octave is divided into seventeen tones, while by the end of the 13th century some music from Persia also maintained a twelve interval octave, which resembled the western counterpart.[86]

Persian music utilizes a variety of musical instruments that are unique to the region, and has evolved since its ancient and medieval times. In terms of comparison between the basic style of music, employment of smaller intervals, and the transition from one key to another by progressions that are minute compared to their European counterparts, is what gives Persian music its unique quality.

Carpets

Main article: Persian carpet

Carpet weaving is an essential part of the Persian culture,[87] and Persian rugs are said to be one of the most detailed hand-made works of art.

World's oldest existing carpet, the Pazyryk carpet, a pile-carpet dating back to 400–300 BC, depicts elements of Assyrian and Achaemenid design, including stylistic references to stone slab designs found in Persian palaces.[88]

Achaemenid rug and carpet artistry is well recognized, as Xenophon describes the carpet production in the city of Sardis, then a province of the Achaemenid Empire, stating that the locals take pride in their carpet production. Special mention of Persian carpets are made by Athenaeus of Naucratis in his Deipnosophists, as he describes "a delightfully embroidered Persian carpet" having some "preposterous shapes of griffins".[88]

Observances

One of the most recognized traditions observed by the Persians is the festival of Nowruz. Considered the national New Year of the Iranian people, the festival of Nowruz has its roots in ancient Iranian traditions, and has been recognized by the UNESCO as an "Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity".[89]

Festivals such as Charshanbe Suri (a prelude to Nowruz, celebrated by jumping over bonfires), Sizde be Dar (a picnic festival celebrated on the thirteenth day of the Iranian New Year) and Yalda (the longest night of the year, celebrated on the eve of Winter Solstice) are also widely celebrated by the Iranian peoples.

See also

References

  1. ↑ United States Central Intelligence Agency(CIA) (April 28, 2011). "The World Fact Book – Iran". CIA. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
  2. ↑ Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. "Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-12-02.
  3. ↑ Beck, Lois (2014). Nomads in Postrevolutionary Iran: The Qashqa'i in an Era of Change. Routledge. p. xxii. ISBN 978-1317743866. (...) an ethnic Persian; adheres to cultural systems connected with other ethnic Persians
  4. ↑ Samadi, Habibeh; Nick Perkins (2012). Martin Ball; David Crystal; Paul Fletcher, eds. Assessing Grammar: The Languages of Lars. Multilingual Matters. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-84769-637-3.
  5. ↑ R. N. Fyre, "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN" in Encyclopaedia Iranica, "The largest group of people in present-day Iran are Persians (*q.v.) who speak dialects of the language called Fārsi in Persian, since it was primarily the tongue of the people of Fārs."
  6. ↑ C.S. Coon, "Iran:Demography and Ethnography" in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume IV, E.J. Brill, pp 10,8. Excerpt: "The Lurs speak an aberrant form of Archaic Persian" See maps also on page 10 for distribution of Persian languages and dialect
  7. ↑ Kathryn M. Coughlin, "Muslim cultures today: a reference guide," Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pg 89: "...Iranians speak Persian or a Persian dialect such as Gilaki or Mazandarani"
  8. 1 2 "Iran :: Ethnic groups – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". .britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
  9. 1 2 David Sacks; Oswyn Murray; Lisa R. Brody (2005). Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world. Infobase Publishing. pp. 256 (at the right portion of the page).
  10. 1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica. "Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran". Britannica.com. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  11. 1 2 David Sacks, Oswyn Murray, Lisa R. Brody; Oswyn Murray; Lisa R. Brody (2005). Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world. Infobase Publishing. pp. 256 (at the right portion of the page). ISBN 978-0-8160-5722-1. Retrieved 2016-08-17.
  12. ↑ Edward Farr (1850). History of the Persians. Robert Carter. pp. 124–7.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Roisman & Worthington 2011, p. 345.
  14. ↑ Περσίς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  15. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "Persia". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  16. ↑ For example, Abu Rayhan Biruni, a native speaker of the Eastern Iranian language Khwarezmian mentions in his Āthār al-bāqiyah ʻan al-qurūn al-xāliyah that: "the people of Khwarizm, they are a branch of the Persian tree." See: Abu Rahyan Biruni, "Athar al-Baqqiya 'an al-Qurun al-Xaliyyah" ("Vestiges of the past: chronology of ancient nations"), Tehran, Miras-e-Maktub, 2001. Original Arabic of the quote: "و أما أهل خوارزم، و إن کانوا غصنا ً من دوحة الفُرس"(pg 56)
  17. ↑ The language used in the ancient Marzbānnāma was, in the words of the 13th-century historian Sa'ad ad-Din Warawini, “ the language of Ṭabaristan and old, original Persian (fārsī-yi ḳadīm-i bāstān)”See: Kramers, J.H. "Marzban-nāma." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. 18 November 2007 <http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-4990>
  18. ↑ The language of Tabriz, being an Iranian language during the time of Qatran Tabrizi, was not the standard Khurasani Parsi-ye Dari. Qatran Tabrizi(11th century) has an interesting couplet mentioning this fact: Mohammad-Amin Riahi. “Molehaazi darbaareyeh Zabaan-I Kohan Azerbaijan”(Some comments on the ancient language of Azerbaijan), ‘Itilia’at Siyasi Magazine, volume 181–182.
  19. ↑ Al Mas'udi (1894). De Goeje, M.J., ed. Kitab al-Tanbih wa-l-Ishraf (in Arabic). Brill. pp. 77–78.
  20. ↑ Shiel, Lady (Mary). Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia. London: John Murray, 1856. See:
  21. ↑ "Persian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved Feb 6, 2011.
  22. ↑ "Persian entry in the Merriam-Webster online dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 2010-08-13. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
  23. ↑ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition (2000).
  24. ↑ Bausani, Alessandro. The Persians, from the earliest days to the twentieth century. 1971, Elek. ISBN 978-0-236-17760-8
  25. ↑ Abdolhossein Zarinkoob "Ruzgaran : tarikh-e Iran az aghaz ta soqut-e saltnat-e Pahlevi" pp. 37
  26. ↑ Bahman Firuzmandi "Mad, Hakhamaneshi, Ashkani, Sasani" pp. 155
  27. ↑ Gershevitch,, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. II (reissue, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 9780521200912.
  28. ↑ Eduljee, K D. "Zoroastrian Heritage The Zagros". 2012. The Heritage Site. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  29. ↑ Gershevitch,, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge History of Iran. II (reissue, illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 63. ISBN 9780521200912.
  30. ↑ Stearns, Peter N (ed.). Encyclopedia of World History (6 ed.). The Houghton Mifflin Company/ Bartleby.com. The Medes and the Persians, c.1500-559
  31. ↑ Bahman Firuzmandi "Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani" pp. 20
  32. ↑ Grant, R G. Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2005 pg 19.
  33. ↑ F Leo Oppenheim – Ancient Mesopotamia
  34. 1 2 Lands of Iran Encyclopedia Iranica (July 25, 2005) (retrieved 3 March 2008)
  35. ↑ Iran. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05
  36. ↑ Bahman Firuzmandi "Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani" pp. 12–19
  37. ↑ Charles Gates (2003). Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Psychology Press. p. 186.
  38. ↑ Margaret Christina Miller (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. p. 243.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 GHERARDO GNOLI, "IRANIAN IDENTITY" in Encyclopaedia Iranica". Excerpt 1: " All this evidence shows that the name arya Iranian was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of Ahura Mazdā.". Excerpt 2: "The inscriptions of Darius I (see DARIUS iii) and Xerxes, in which the different provinces of the empire are listed, make it clear that, between the end of the 6th century and the middle of the 5th century B.C.E., the Persians were already aware of belonging to the ariya “Iranian” nation (see ARYA and ARYANS). Darius and Xerxes boast of belonging to a stock which they call “Iranian”: they proclaim themselves “Iranian” and “of Iranian stock,” ariya and ariya čiça respectively, in inscriptions in which the Iranian countries come first in a list that is arranged in a new hierarchical and ethno-geographical order, compared for instance with the list of countries in Darius’s inscription at Behistun" Excerpt 3: "Although, up until the end of the Parthian period, Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value, it did not yet have a political import. The idea of an “Iranian” empire or kingdom is a purely Sasanian one". Excerpt 4:"It was in the Sasanian period, then, that the pre-Islamic Iranian identity reached the height of its fulfilment in every aspect: political, religious, cultural, and linguistic (with the growing diffusion of Middle Persian). Its main ingredients were the appeal to a heroic past that was identified or confused with little-known Achaemenid origins (Yarshater, 1971; Daryaee, 1995), and the religious tradition, for which the Avesta was the chief source.". Also accessed online at: in May, 2011
  40. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica: ""Middle Persian [Sassanian Pahlava] and Parthian were doubtlessly similar enough to be mutually intelligible." (Enc.Brit.vol.22,2003, p.627)
  41. 1 2 Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, "Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2006. 2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: "Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian."
  42. ↑ Windfuhr, G. (1989), “New West Iranian,” R. Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Wiesbaden: 251-62.
  43. ↑ Asatrian, G. (1995), “Dimli”, Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition.
  44. ↑ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica,"Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, "new Persian, is "the descendant of Middle Persian" and has been "official language of Iranian states for centuries", whereas for other non-Persian Iranian languages "close genetic relationships are difficult to establish" between their different (Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese."
  45. ↑ Gilbert Lazard: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran. In Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  46. ↑ Benjamin W. Fortson, "Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction", John Wiley and Sons, 2009. pg 242: " Middle Persian was the official language of the Sassanian dynasty"
  47. ↑ (Shapur Shahbazi 2005)
  48. ↑ Norman A. Stillman The Jews of Arab Lands pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 ISBN 0827611552
  49. ↑ International Congress of Byzantine Studies Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3 pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 ISBN 075465740X
  50. ↑ "History of Iran". Iranologie.com. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
  51. ↑ "The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency.
  52. 1 2 "Subfamily: Farsic", Glottolog
  53. ↑ "Persian". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
  54. ↑ Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. "The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Persian, Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran."
  55. ↑ Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, "Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2006. 2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: "Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, the Pahlavi language was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian."
  56. ↑ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica, "Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, "new Persian, is "the descendant of Middle Persian" and has since been "official language of Iranian states for centuries", whereas for other non-Persian Iranian languages "close genetic relationships are difficult to establish" between their different (Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese."
  57. ↑ (Skjærvø 2006, vi(2). Documentation. Old Persian.)
  58. ↑ Kuhrt 2013, p. 197.
  59. ↑ Schmitt 2000, p. 53.
  60. ↑ Roland G. Kent, Old Persian, 1953
  61. ↑ Kent, R. G.: "Old Persian: Grammar Texts Lexicon", page 6. American Oriental Society, 1950.
  62. ↑ (Schmitt 2008, pp. 80–1)
  63. ↑ "SociolinguistEssex X – 2005" (PDF). Essex University. 2005. p. 10.
  64. ↑ Frye, Richard N. (1983). Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft, Part 3, Volume 7. Beck. p. 29. ISBN 978-3406093975.
  65. ↑ Don Stillo, "Isfahan-Provincial Dialects" in Encyclopedia Iranica, Excerpt: "While the modern SWI languages, for instance, Persian, Lori-Bak_tia-ri and others, are derived directly from Old Persian through Middle Persian/Pahlavi"
  66. ↑ C.S. Coon, "Iran:Demography and Ethnography" in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume IV, E.J. Brill, pp 10,8.
  67. ↑ Vladimir Minorsky (1958). A history of Sharvan and Darband in the 10th - 11th centuries. Heffer.
  68. ↑ Beeman, William. "Persian, Dari and Tajik" (PDF). Brown University. Archived (PDF) from the original on |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help). Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  69. ↑ George Grote (1899). Greece: I. Legendary Greece: II. Grecian history to the reign of Peisistratus at Athens, Volume 12. P. F. Collier. p. 106.
  70. 1 2 Ira Marvin Lapidus (2002). A history of Islamic societies. Cambridge University Press. p. 127.
  71. ↑ Richard G. Hovannisian (1998). The Persian presence in the Islamic world. Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–83.
  72. ↑ Will Durant, Age of Faith, (Simon and Schuster, 1950), 150; Repaying its debt, Sasanian art exported it forms and motives eastward into India, Turkestan, and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt, and Spain..
  73. ↑ Krishna Chandra Sagar (1992). Foreign influence on ancient India. Northern Book Centre. p. 17.
  74. ↑ Bertold Spuler; M. Ismail Marcinkowski (2003). Persian historiography and geography: Bertold Spuler on major works produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India, and early Ottoman Turkey. Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd. pp. multiple pages & Back cover.
  75. ↑ Margaret Christina Miller (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 243–251.
  76. ↑ Andrew Burke, Mark Elliot (2008). Iran. Lonely Planet. pp. 295 & 114–5 (for architecture) and pp. 68–72 (for arts).
  77. ↑ Arthur John Arberry, The Legacy of Persia, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953, ISBN 0-19-821905-9, p. 200.
  78. ↑ Charles Henry Caffin (1917). How to study architecture. Dodd, Mead and Company. p. 80.
  79. ↑ Marco Bussagli (2005). Understanding Architecture. I.B.Tauris. p. 211.
  80. ↑ Rafie Hamidpour D E Dabfe, Rafie Hamidpour (2010). Land of Lion, Land of Sun. AuthorHouse. p. 54.
  81. 1 2 3 Penelope Hobhouse; Erica Hunningher; Jerry Harpur (2004). Gardens of Persia. Kales Press. pp. 7–13.
  82. ↑ L. Mays (2010). Ancient Water Technologies. Springer. pp. 95–100.
  83. ↑ Mehdi Khansari; M. Reza Moghtader; Minouch Yavari (2004). Persian Garden: Echoes Of Paradise. Mage Publishers.
  84. ↑ Sibyl Marcuse (1975). A survey of musical instruments. Harper & Row. pp. 398–401.
  85. ↑ Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1987). Islamic art and spirituality. SUNY Press. pp. 3–4.
  86. ↑ Janet M. Green; Josephine Thrall (1908). The American history and encyclopedia of music. I. Squire. pp. 55–58.
  87. ↑ Mary Beach Langton (1904). How to know oriental rugs, a handbook. D. Appleton and Company. pp. 57–59.
  88. 1 2 Ronald W. Ferrier (1989). The Arts of Persia. Yale University Press. pp. 118–120.
  89. ↑ UNCESCO (2009). "Intangible Heritage List". Retrieved March 9, 2011.

Sources

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/1/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.