Sambor Ghetto

Sambor Ghetto

Sambor, 1939

Jewish market in Sambor's neighbourhood of Blich. Poland before the German-Soviet invasion of 1939
Sambor
Sambor

Sambor location during the Holocaust in Poland

Location Sambor, German-occupied Poland
Persecution Imprisonment, forced labor, starvation, mass killings, deportations to death camps, extortion
Organizations Schutzstaffel (SS), Schutzmannschaften
Death camp Belzec (see map)
Victims Over 10,000 ghettoized Jews.[1]

Sambor Ghetto (Polish: getto w Samborze) was a Jewish World War II ghetto established in March 1942 by the Schutzstaffel (SS) in the prewar Polish city of Sambor in the south-eastern region of Kresy (now Sambir, Ukraine).[2] Sambor was occupied by Nazi Germany twice, first during the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, and again, after the 1941 Operation Barbarossa.[3] Before the war, Sambor was a county seat in the Lwów Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic. The invading Germans handed the town over to the Soviets in accordance with the Nazi-Soviet Pact against Poland. Sambor was annexed to the Ukrainian SSR along with the entire region in the atmosphere of intimidation, and the NKVD terror.[4] In 1941 the city was overrun again by the Wehrmacht army in the course of the German attack on the Soviet positions behind the Curzon Line (see map, marked in red), and incorporated it into their own Distrikt Galizien.[5][6] According to the Polish census of 1931 Jews constituted nearly 29 percent of the town's inhabitants,[7] most of whom were killed during the Holocaust. Sambor (Sambir) is not to be confused with the much smaller Old Sambor (Stary Sambor, now Staryi Sambir) located close-by, although their Jewish history is inextricably linked together.[8]

For more details on this topic, see Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland.

Background

Following the rebirth of sovereign Poland in 1918, both Sambor and Stary Sambor became seats of separate gminas. In April 1932 the counties were joined as one administrative area.[9] The Jewish population grew steadily. Brand new schools including Jewish gymnasium and Bais Yaakov for girls were established, as well as new industrial plants, unions, Jewish relief organizations, and several Zionist parties such as World Agudath Israel. Jews engaged in trade, crafts, carter, agriculture, and professional activities. Jewish cultural institutions included a large library and a sports club.[10] On 8–11 September 1939 Sambor was overrun by the 1st Mountain Division of the Wehrmacht during the Polish Battle of Lwów.[11] It was transferred to the Soviets in accordance with the German-Soviet Frontier Treaty signed with Joseph Stalin on 28 September 1939.[11]

German and Russian soldiers stroll around Sambor after the German-Soviet invasion of Poland. Their joint victory parade took place in Brześć.[12]

The Red Army rolled into town on 20 September 1939 and fraternised with German soldiers for a week.[12] After the Germans left, the wealthy and middle class Polish Jews were arrested by the NKVD and sentenced for deportation to Siberia along with the Polish intelligentsia. Some pro-Soviet Jews were given government jobs.[3] The economy was nationalized; hundreds of citizens were executed out of sight by the secret police as "enemies of the people".[3][13] Sambor became part of the brand new Drohobych Oblast on 4 December 1939.[9]

Two years after their joint invasion of Poland, the German army attacked the Soviet forces in occupied territories by launching Operation Barbarossa of 22 June 1941. During the hasty evacuation of the political prison in Sambor the NKVD shot in cold blood 600 prisoners;[14] 80 corpses were left unburied due to the lack of time.[13] Sambor was taken over by the Wehrmacht on 29 June.[15] The city became one of a dozen administrative units of Distrikt Galizien, the fifth district of the General Government with the capital in Lemberg.[6]

Along with the German troops arrived the Ukrainian task forces (pokhidny hrupy), thoroughly indoctrinated at the German training bases in the General Government.[16] The OUN followers (Anwärters included) mobilized Ukrainian militants in some 30 locations at once,[17] including in Sambor; and in accordance with the Nazi theory of Judeo-Bolshevism launched retaliatory pogroms against the Polish Jews. The deadliest of them, overseen by SS-Brigadeführer Otto Rasch, took place in Lwów (74 kilometres distance) beginning 30 June 1941.[18] On 1 July 1941 the Ukrainian nationalists killed approximately 50–100 Polish Jews in Sambor,[10][15][19] but similar pogroms affected other Polish provincial capitals as far as Tarnopol, Stanisławów and Łuck.[20]

The Ghetto

The German authorities forced all adult Jews to wear the Star of David. In July 1941, the Jewish Judenrat was formed in Sambor on German orders, with Dr. Shimshon (Samson) Schneidscher as its Chairman.[21] In the following months, Jews were being deported to the open-type ghetto in Sambor from the entire county.[15] On 17 July, Heinrich Himmler decreed the formation of the Schutzmannschaften from among the local Ukrainians,[20] owing to good relations with the local Ukrainian Hilfsverwaltung.[22] By 7 August 1941 in most areas conquered by the Wehrmacht,[17] the units of the Ukrainian People's Militia have already participated in a series of so-called "self-purification" actions, closely followed by the killings carried out by the Einsatzgruppe C.[19] The OUN-B militia spearheaded a day-long pogrom in Stary Sambor.[8] Thirty-two prominent Jews were dragged by the nationalists to the cemetery and bludgeoned. Surviving eyewitnesses, Mrs. Levitski and Mr. Eidman, reported cases of dismemberment and decapitation of the victims.[8] Afterwards, a Jewish Ghetto Police was set up, headed by Hermann Stahl.[10] Jews were ordered to hand–over their furs, radios, silver and gold.[21]

Tkacka Street in Sambor before the Holocaust in occupied Poland, c. 1939

Among the people trapped in the Sambor Ghetto were thousands of refugees who arrived there in an attempt to escape the German occupation of western Poland, and possibly cross the border to Romania,[10] and Hungary.[23] Confined to the Blich neighbourhood of Sambor – the ghetto was officially sealed from the outside on 12 January 1942,[21][24] Jews from different parts of the city along with inhabitants of neighbouring communities,[15] including Stary Sambor, were transferred to the Ghetto by March 1942. A curfew was imposed, subject to on-sight shooting.[8][10]

Deportations to death camps

The fate of ghettoised Jews across occupied Poland was sealed at Wannsee, where the most deadly phase of the Final Solution was set in motion.[24] In July 1942, the first killing centre of Operation Reinhard built by the SS at Bełżec (just over 100 kilometres away) began its second phase of extermination, with brand new gas chambers built of brick and mortar.[25] Sambor Jews were rounded up in stages. A terror operation was conducted in the ghetto on 2–4 August 1942 ahead of the first deportation action.[24] The 'resettlement' rail transports to Bełżec left Sambor on 4–6 August 1942 under heavy guard, with 6,000 men, women, and children crammed into Holocaust trains without food or water.[1] About 600 Jews were sent to Janowska concentration camp nearby.[15] The second set of trains with 3,000–4,000 Jews departed on 17–18 and 22 October 1942.[1][2] On 17 November 1942 the already depopulated ghetto was filled with expellees from Turka and Ilnik. Some Jews escaped to the forest. The town of Turka was declared Judenfrei on 1 December 1942.[26] Irrespective of deportations, mass shootings of Jews were also carried out.[3][27] In January 1943 the Germans along with the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police rounded up 1,500 Jews deemed 'incapable of working'. They were trucked to the woods near Radlowicz (Radłowicze, Radlovitze; now Ralivka) and shot one by one.[26] Among those still alive in the ghetto death by starvation and typhus raged.[26]

After the long winter, new terror operations in the ghetto took place in March,[26] or April 1943.[8] The Gestapo utilized Wehrmacht units transiting through Sambor to round up Jews. All houses, cellars and even chimneys were searched.[8] The 1,500 captives were split in groups of 100 each.[26] They were escorted to the cemetery,[28] where the strong Jewish men were forced to dig their own mass graves.[29] The liquidation of the ghetto was approaching. In June, deputy to the Judenrat chairman, Dr. Zausner, gave a speech full of hope because the Gestapo office in Drohobicz agreed to save a group of labourers in exchange for a huge ransom. Nevertheless, on the night of 8 June 1943 the Ukrainian Hilfspolizei set the ghetto houses on fire. In the morning, all Jewish slave labour were escorted to prison, loaded onto lorries and trucked to the killing fields at Radłowicze.[8] The ghetto was no more; the city was declared "Judenrein". The Soviet Red Army rolled into Sambor a year later amid heavy fighting with the retreating Germans, around 7 August 1944.[8][30]

Holocaust rescue

(L. to r.) Polish Righteous Alojzy Plewa, his brother Feliks, and Ruth Schwarz rescued from the Sambor Ghetto, 1942

There were numerous escape and rescue attempts before the ghetto liquidation. Many Jews survived the Holocaust by hiding with the Poles, others fled to the forest.[26] Guta Gripel Korngold with her husband Henryk Schwarz and two-year-old daughter Ruth née Schwarz survived thanks to help from Alojzy Plewa, a Polish Righteous from Sambor who never asked for anything in return.[31] In late 1942 he brought them money and clothing to the ghetto from his Jewish friends in Silesia and on the way back smuggled their child (pictured) across the ghetto gate. His brother Feliks and both parents took care of the girl until the occupation ended. They gave her a Polish-sounding name Antośka for her safety,[31] while the Schwarz' couple with Ehiel hid with other rescuers. In the meantime, Alojzy Plewa extended assistance to other Jews, including Jan and Anna Dziula. After the war, the Schwarz family settled in Israel.[23] Plewa was recognized as the Righteous by Yad Vashem in November 1978.[23] A sizeable group of Jewish children, secretly taken out of the ghetto in 1943, stayed at the Polish orphanage in Sambor, run by the Franciscan Sisters of the Family of Mary under the care of Mother Superior Celina Kędzierska, recognized as a Righteous Among the Nations in 2015.[32]

Amalia Mudrycki, a Jewish woman hiding on the Aryan side of Sambor, approached Jan and Mieczysław Oczyński – father and son living next door – with the plea to rescue her closest friends from the Drohobycz Ghetto. Jan was a railway engineer, Mieczysław was a violinist fresh from the conservatory. They took in Dr. Maksymilian Getlinger with his wife Leontyna and their son-in-law Dr. Alfred Herzig, as well as their friend Rachela. Also, Mieczysław went to Drohobycz with an address from Amalia and smuggled from the ghetto a 10-year-old boy, Adam. Feeding them all became a challenge, but the living conditions were exceptionally good. Mieczysław worked in the fields of his uncle Mr. Ochowicz to earn the extra food they needed. While there, he met the Jewish sisters in hiding, Basia and Ewa Schreiber. Basia was seriously ill. Mieczysław took her to Sambor and put her under the care of Dr. Herzig hiding in his own home. Meanwhile, the circumstances forced Amalia Mudrycki to also accept Oczyńskis' hospitality. All Jews survived, and with time left their homeland for Israel and Brazil.[33] The Getlingers stayed in contact with the two Oczyńskis for many years. Jan and his son Mieczysław Oczyński were recognized as Righteous by Yad Vashem in September 1983.[33][34] However, not all rescue attempts were equally successful. In 1943 the Nazi police executed at least 27 people in Sambor for attempting to hide Jews.[35]

A decree issued on October 15, 1941 by Hans Frank, Governor of the Generalgouvernement of German-occupied Poland, specified the death sentence for any Jews who moved outside their ghettos without authorization. The same death sentence applied to Christian Poles who knowingly helped Jews to hide or to move out of the ghetto.[36]

Following World War II, at the insistence of Joseph Stalin during Tehran Conference of 1943, Poland's borders were redrawn and Sambor (then again, Sambir) was incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union. Polish population was forcibly resettled back to new Poland before the end of 1946.[37] "During the Soviet era – wrote Nadja Weck, the Sambor – Jewish cemetery lost its original function and was levelled. Plans were made to construct a sports field on the site."[28] Since 1991, Sambir (Самбір) is part of sovereign Ukraine. In 2000, an attempt to preserve the site of the mass shootings of Jews, for a Holocaust memorial park, was effectively stopped.[28]

See also

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 ARC (2004). "Holocaust Transports". Deportations of Jews from District Galicia to Death Camp in Belzec.
  2. 1 2 Michael Peters (2016) [2004]. "Ghetto List". ARC – via Internet Archive. Virtual Shtetl (2016). "Glossary of 2,077 Jewish towns in Poland". Museum of the History of the Polish Jews. Gedeon (2012) [2004]. "Getta Żydowskie". Izrael. Badacz.org. Sampol – via Internet Archive. See also: Yitzhak Arad (1987). Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253342937. Deportations to Belzec from Sambor, 4–6 August 1942: 4,000 Jews; 17–18 October: 2,000 and 22 October 1942: 2,000 Jews. Stary Sambor deportation, 5–6 August: 1,500.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Meylakh Sheykhet. "Sambir (Sambor)". Ukraine: Faina Petryakova Scientific Center for Judaica and Jewish Art. [sources not listed]
  4. ↑ Bernd Wegner (1997). From peace to war: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the world, 1939–1941. Berghahn Books. p. 74. ISBN 1-57181-882-0.
  5. ↑ Paczkowski, Andrzej (2003). The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom. Translated by Jane Cave. Penn State Press. pp. 54–. ISBN 0-271-02308-2 – via Google Books.
  6. 1 2 Nancy E. Rupprecht, Wendy Koenig (2015). Global Perspectives on the Holocaust: History. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 368–369. ISBN 1443884243. Kreishauptmannschaften in Distrikt Galizien.
  7. ↑ Polish census of 1931, Lwów Voivodeship (volume 68). "Sambor population, total" (PDF). Main Bureau of Statistics. pp. 44–45 (75–76 in PDF download). The city of Sambor: 21,923 inhabitants, with 13,575 ethnic Poles, and 6,274 Jews, as well as 1,338 ethnic Ukrainians and 1,564 ethnic Ruthenians (i.e. Rusyns) determined by mother tongue (Yiddish: 4,942 and Hebrew: 383). Sambor county (powiat): population 133,814 in 1931 (urban and rural) with 11,258 Jews. For the current population numbers within Ukraine see: "Population of Ukraine as of January 1, 2016" (PDF). Statistical Collected Book Available. State Statistics Service of Ukraine; Institute for Demography and Social Studies: 55, 52. м. Самбір: 35,026 – м. Старий Самбір: 6,648.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Alexander Manor. "Liquidation of the Jewish Community of Stari-Sambor; June and August 1942 deportations". The Book of Sambor and Stari Sambor, History of the Cities. Translated by Sara Mages. JewishGen Inc. Yizkor Book Project.
  9. 1 2 Starostwo Powiatowe w Ustrzykach Dolnych. "Miasto Stary Sambor" [The city of Old Sambor]. Sister cities. Ustrzyki Dolne: Powiat Bieszczadzki.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Encyclopedia of the Ghettos (2016). "סמבּוֹר (Sambor) המכון הבין-לאומי לחקר השואה – יד ושם:". Yad Vashem. The International Institute for Holocaust Research.
  11. 1 2 Steve J. Zaloga (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg. Oxford: Osprey Publishing / Praeger. p. 79. ISBN 0275982785. Also in: Marcin Hałaś. "Sambor". Polska Niepodległa. Source: Stanisław Sławomir Nicieja (2014), Kresowa Atlantyda. Historia i mitologia miast kresowych. Volume V, Wydawnictwo MS, Opole – via Internet Archive.
  12. 1 2 T. Wiśniewski (2016). "Sowiecka agresja na Polskę". Media Depository. NowaHistoria. Interia.pl.
  13. 1 2 Тов. Сергиенко. "Доповідна записка наркому Сергієнко про розстріли та евакуацію в'язнів із тюрем Західної України 5 липня1941 р." [Shooting and evacuating prisoners from prisons in Western Ukraine Report by Commissar Serhiyenko] (PDF). Народному комиссару внутренних дел УССР старшему майору государственной безопасности. Киев. Page 171 in PDF document – via direct download. В двух тюрьмах в городе Самбор и Стрий (сведений о тюрьме в гор. Перемышль не имеем) – содержалось 2242 заключенных. Во время эвакуации расстреляно по обеим тюрьмам 1101 заключенных, освобождено – 250 человек, этапировано 637 и оставлено в тюрьмах – 304 заключенных. 27 июня при эвакуации в тюрьме гор. Самбор осталось – 80 незарытых трупов, на просьбы начальника тюрьмы к руководству Горотдела НКГБ и НКВД оказать ему помощь в зарытии трупов – они ответили категорическим отказом.
  14. ↑ Roger Moorhouse (2014). The Devils' Alliance: Hitler's Pact with Stalin, 1939–1941. Basic Books. p. 176. ISBN 0465054927.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Eugene Shnaider (2015). "Самбор, Львовская область". Еврейские местечки Украины. Самбор. 29 июня 1941 Самбор оккупировали части вермахта. 1 июля 1941 местные украинцы устроили погром, в ходе которого было убито 50 евреев.
  16. ↑ Irena Cantorovich (June 2012). "Honoring the Collaborators – The Ukrainian Case" (PDF). Roni Stauber, Beryl Belsky. Kantor Program Papers. When the Soviets occupied eastern Galicia, some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists fled to the General Government. In 1940 the Germans began to set up military training units of Ukrainians, and in the spring of 1941 Ukrainian units were established by the Wehrmacht. See also: Marek Getter (1996). "Policja Polska w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939–1945". Polish Police in the General Government 1939–1945. Przegląd Policyjny nr 1-2. Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Policji w Szczytnie. pp. 1–22. Archived from the original on 26 June 2013. Reprint, with extensive statistical data, at Policja Państwowa webpage.
  17. 1 2 Р. П. Шляхтич (2006). "ОУН в 1941 році: документи: В 2-х частинах Ін-т історії України НАН України" [OUN in 1941: Documents in 2 volumes] (PDF). Kiev: Ukraine National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine: Institute of History of Ukraine: 426–428. ISBN 966-02-2535-0. Abstract. Listed locations included Lviv, Ternopil, Stanislavov, Lutsk, Rivne, Yavoriv, Kamenetz-Podolsk, Drohobych, Borislav, Dubno, Sambor, Kostopol, Sarny, Kozovyi, Zolochiv, Berezhany, Pidhaytsi, Kolomyya, Rava-Ruska, Obroshyno, Radekhiv, Gorodok, Kosovo, Terebovlia, Vyshnivtsi, Zbarazh, Zhytomyr and Fastov. See also: Karel C. Berkhoff; Marco Carynnyk (23 December 1999). "The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Its Attitude toward Germans and Jews". Research Library. Harvard Ukrainian Studies. 3/4: 149–150.
  18. ↑ Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998). Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947. McFarland. pp. 207–211. ISBN 0786403713 – via Google Books.
  19. 1 2 Peter Longerich (2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. OUP Oxford. pp. 195, 199–200. ISBN 0192804367.
  20. 1 2 Symposium Presentations (September 2005). "The Holocaust and [German] Colonialism in Ukraine: A Case Study" (PDF). The Holocaust in the Soviet Union. The Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 15, 18–19, 20 in current document of 1/154. Archived from the original on 16 August 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2014. See also: Ronald Headland (1992). Messages of Murder: A Study of the Reports of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police and the Security Service, 1941–1943. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press. pp. 79, 125–126. ISBN 0838634184.
  21. 1 2 3 Alexander Manor, Toni Nacht, Dolek Frei (1980). "The Annihilation of the City". The Book of Sambor and Stari Sambor; a Memorial to the Jewish Communities. Translated by Susan Rosin. Chapter 8.
  22. ↑ Markus Eikel (2013). "The local administration under German occupation in central and eastern Ukraine, 1941–1944". The Holocaust in Ukraine: New Sources and Perspectives (PDF). Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Pages 110–122 in PDF. Ukraine differs from other parts of the German-occupied Soviet Union, whereas the local administrators have formed the Hilfsverwaltung in support of extermination policies in 1941 and 1942, and in providing assistance for the deportations to camps in Germany, mainly in 1942 and 1943.
  23. 1 2 3 World Holocaust Remembrance Center (2016). Rescue Story: Plewa, Alojzy. Yad Vashem.
  24. 1 2 3 Allen Brayer (2010). Hiding In Death's Shadow. iUniverse. pp. 71–72. ISBN 1450263836.
  25. ↑ Andrzej Kola (2015) [2000]. Belzec. The Nazi Camp for Jews in the Light of Archaeological Sources. Translated from Polish by Ewa Józefowicz and Mateusz Józefowicz. Warsaw-Washington: The Council for the Protection of Memory of Combat and Martyrdom – The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Also in: Archeologists reveal new secrets of Holocaust, Reuters News, 21 July 1998.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Allen Brayer (2010). Hiding In Death's Shadow: How I Survived The Holocaust. Second Edition. iUniverse. pp. 72, 73. ISBN 1450263836.
  27. ↑ Robin O'Neil. "Extermination of Jews in General Government 1943 Following Closure of Belzec". A Reassessment: Resettlement Transports to Belzec. JewishGen Yizkor Book Project. Sambor, March 1943: 900[372] April 1943: 1000[390] June 1943: 100s[422]
  28. 1 2 3 Nadja Weck (2015). Nancy E. Rupprecht, Wendy Koenig, eds. Holocaust Memory in Western Ukraine. Global Perspectives on the Holocaust: History. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 367. ISBN 1443884243.
  29. ↑ Yaroslav G., witness N°750 (13 January 2009). Execution of Jews in Sambir. Interview. Sambir: YAHAD-IN UNUM. Exhibit 5.
  30. ↑ PKWN (8 August 1944). "Wojska I-go frontu ukrainskiego 7 VIII szturmem zajely miasto Sambor". Lublin: Rzeczpospolita, Organ Polskiego Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodowego.
  31. 1 2 Magdalena Stankowska (May 2012). "The Plewa Family". Przywracanie Pamięci. Translated by Joanna Sliwa. Polish Righteous – Polscy Sprawiedliwi.
  32. ↑ Mark Paul (2015). The Testimony of Survivors (PDF). Wartime Rescue of Jews by the Polish Catholic Clergy. Toronto: Polish Educational Foundation in North America. pp. 98, 185. Despite the fact that at least several hundred Sisters of the Family of Mary risked their lives to rescue Jews, only three of them, Mother Matylda Getter of Warsaw, Sister Helena Chmielewska of Podhajce, and Sister Celina Kędzierska of Sambor have been decorated by Yad Vashem. This is indicative of the sorry state of recognition of Polish rescuers... (p. 84)
  33. 1 2 Yad Vashem. "Oczyński FAMILY; Oczyński Jan and Oczyński Mieczysław (1914 – ), SON". Rescue Story. The Righteous Among The Nations.
  34. ↑ Anna Poray. "Oczynski Jan (1835–1996), Oczynski Mieczysław (1914–)". Those Who Risked Their Lives. Saving Jews: Polish Righteous. See: Michał Grynberg, Księga sprawiedliwych (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 1993), op. cit.
  35. ↑ И.А. Альтман (2002). "Холокост и еврейское сопротивление на оккупированной территории СССР". Центр и Фонд «Холокост». ISBN 5886360077.
  36. ↑ Dr. William L. Shulman (1 November 1998 – 30 June 1999). "To Save One Life. The Story of Righteous Gentiles" (PDF). The City University of New York: Holocaust Resource Center and Archives. p. 11 /20 in PDF.
  37. ↑ Jerzy Kochanowski (2001). "Gathering Poles into Poland. Forced Migration from Poland's Former Eastern Territories". In Philipp Ther, Ana Siljak. Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-1094-4.

Coordinates: 49°18′36″N 23°07′16″E / 49.310°N 23.1210°E / 49.310; 23.1210

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