List of volcanoes in Indonesia

A brown volcano in the centre with white smoke emanating from its peak, a cloudy sky fading from blue at the top through yellow in the middle to red at the horizon, and brown mountains in the foreground.
Mahameru (Semeru) above Mount Bromo, East Java.
East Indonesia Islands from ISS. Six active volcanoes are visible: 5 in East Java, and Rinjani in Lombok.

The geography of Indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatau for its global effects in 1883,[1] Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 years before present which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter,[2] and Mount Tambora for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815.[3]

Volcanoes in Indonesia are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The 150 entries in the list below are grouped into six geographical regions, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system. The remaining two groups are volcanoes of Halmahera, including its surrounding volcanic islands, and volcanoes of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. The latter group is in one volcanic arc together with the Philippine volcanoes.

The most active volcanoes are Kelud and Merapi on Java island which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelut has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI),[4] while Mount Merapi has erupted more than 80 times.[5] The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior has named Mount Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity.

In 2012, Indonesia has 127 active volcanoes with about 5 million people have activities within the danger zone. The earthquake and tsunami event of 26 December 2004 is thought to bring disruption to the volcanoes' eruption pattern. The 2010 eruption of Mount Sinabung, which has no recorded eruption since the 1600s, is presented as one possible example of the hypothesis.[6]

The word for Mount in Indonesian and many regional languages of the country (such as Javanese) is Gunung. Thus, Mount Merapi for example, is referred to as Gunung Merapi in Indonesian and also in some English-based sites.

Scope

A chart with the heading "Major Volcanoes of Indonesia (with eruptions since 1900 A.D.)". Depicted below the heading is an overhead view of a cluster of islands.
Major volcanoes in Indonesia

There is no single standard definition for a volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edifices or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Tengger caldera complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active or dormant, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.

The primary source of the list below is taken from the Volcanoes of the World book, compiled by two volcanologists Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert,[lower-alpha 1] in which active volcanoes in the past 10,000 years (Holocene) are listed.[7] Particularly for Indonesia, Simkin and Siebert used a catalogue of active volcanoes from the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior publication series.[lower-alpha 2] The Simkin and Siebert list is the most complete list of volcanoes in Indonesia, but the accuracy of the record varies from one region to another in terms of contemporary activities and fatalities in recent eruptions. Complementary sources for the latest volcanic data are taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, a governmental institution which is responsible for volcanic activities and geological hazard mitigation in Indonesia,[8] and some academic resources.

Geographical groups

Sumatra

Drawing of an overhead view of an elongated island stretching from the top left corner to the bottom right corner and labelled with names of locations.
Map showing the location of volcanoes and geological fault lines of Sumatra

The geography of Sumatra is dominated by a mountain range called Bukit Barisan (lit: "a row of hills"). The mountain range spans nearly 1,700 km (1,100 mi) from the north to the south of the island, and it was formed by movement of the Australian tectonic plate.[9] The plate moves with a convergence rate of 5.5 cm/year which has created major earthquakes on the western side of Sumatra including the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake.[10][11] The tectonic movement has been responsible not only for earthquakes, but also for the formulation of magma chambers beneath the island.[9]

Only one of the 35 active volcanoes, Weh, is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the Pleistocene epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km (62 mi) × 30 km (19 mi) Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present).[2] The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
Weh stratovolcano 617 metres (2,024 ft) Pleistocene 5°49′N 95°17′E / 5.82°N 95.28°E / 5.82; 95.28
Seulawah Agam stratovolcano 1,810 metres (5,940 ft) 1839 (2) 5°26′53″N 95°39′29″E / 5.448°N 95.658°E / 5.448; 95.658
Peuet Sague complex volcano 2,801 metres (9,190 ft) 25 December 2000 (2) 4°54′50″N 96°19′44″E / 4.914°N 96.329°E / 4.914; 96.329
Geureudong stratovolcano 2,885 metres (9,465 ft) 1937 4°48′47″N 96°49′12″E / 4.813°N 96.82°E / 4.813; 96.82
Kembar shield volcano 2,245 metres (7,365 ft) Pleistocene 3°51′00″N 97°39′50″E / 3.850°N 97.664°E / 3.850; 97.664
Sibayak stratovolcano 2,212 metres (7,257 ft) 1881 3°14′N 98°31′E / 3.23°N 98.52°E / 3.23; 98.52
Sinabung stratovolcano 2,460 metres (8,070 ft) 22 May 2016 3°10′12″N 98°23′31″E / 3.17°N 98.392°E / 3.17; 98.392
Toba supervolcano 2,157 metres (7,077 ft) 72000 BC 2°35′N 98°50′E / 2.58°N 98.83°E / 2.58; 98.83
Helatoba-Tarutung fumarole field 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) Pleistocene 2°02′N 98°56′E / 2.03°N 98.93°E / 2.03; 98.93
Imun unknown 1,505 metres (4,938 ft) unknown 2°09′29″N 98°55′48″E / 2.158°N 98.93°E / 2.158; 98.93
Sibualbuali stratovolcano 1,819 metres (5,968 ft) unknown 1°33′22″N 99°15′18″E / 1.556°N 99.255°E / 1.556; 99.255
Lubukraya stratovolcano 1,862 metres (6,109 ft) unknown 1°28′41″N 99°12′32″E / 1.478°N 99.209°E / 1.478; 99.209
Sorikmarapi stratovolcano 2,145 metres (7,037 ft) 1986 (1) 0°41′10″N 99°32′20″E / 0.686°N 99.539°E / 0.686; 99.539
Talakmau complex volcano 2,919 metres (9,577 ft) unknown 0°04′44″N 99°58′48″E / 0.079°N 99.98°E / 0.079; 99.98
Sarik-Gajah volcanic cone unknown unknown 0°00′29″N 100°12′00″E / 0.008°N 100.20°E / 0.008; 100.20
Marapi complex volcano 2,891 metres (9,485 ft) 5 August 2004 (2) 0°22′52″S 100°28′23″E / 0.381°S 100.473°E / -0.381; 100.473
Tandikat stratovolcano 2,438 metres (7,999 ft) 1924 (1) 0°25′59″S 100°19′01″E / 0.433°S 100.317°E / -0.433; 100.317
Talang stratovolcano 2,597 metres (8,520 ft) 12 April 2005 (2) 0°58′41″S 100°40′44″E / 0.978°S 100.679°E / -0.978; 100.679
Kerinci stratovolcano 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) 22 June 2004 (2) 1°41′49″S 101°15′50″E / 1.697°S 101.264°E / -1.697; 101.264
Hutapanjang stratovolcano 2,021 metres (6,631 ft) unknown 2°20′S 101°36′E / 2.33°S 101.60°E / -2.33; 101.60
Sumbing stratovolcano 2,507 metres (8,225 ft) 23 May 1921 (2) 2°24′50″S 101°43′41″E / 2.414°S 101.728°E / -2.414; 101.728
Kunyit stratovolcano 2,151 metres (7,057 ft) unknown 2°35′31″S 101°37′48″E / 2.592°S 101.63°E / -2.592; 101.63
Pendan unknown unknown unknown 2°49′S 102°01′E / 2.82°S 102.02°E / -2.82; 102.02
Belirang-Beriti compound 1,958 metres (6,424 ft) unknown 2°49′S 102°11′E / 2.82°S 102.18°E / -2.82; 102.18
Bukit Daun stratovolcano 2,467 metres (8,094 ft) unknown 3°23′S 102°22′E / 3.38°S 102.37°E / -3.38; 102.37
Kaba stratovolcano 1,952 metres (6,404 ft) 22 August 2000 (1) 3°31′S 102°37′E / 3.52°S 102.62°E / -3.52; 102.62
Dempo stratovolcano 3,173 metres (10,410 ft) October 1994 (1) 4°02′S 103°08′E / 4.03°S 103.13°E / -4.03; 103.13
Patah unknown 2,817 metres (9,242 ft) unknown 4°16′S 103°18′E / 4.27°S 103.30°E / -4.27; 103.30
Bukit Lumut Balai stratovolcano 2,055 metres (6,742 ft) unknown 4°14′S 103°37′E / 4.23°S 103.62°E / -4.23; 103.62
Besar stratovolcano 1,899 metres (6,230 ft) April 1940 (1) 4°26′S 103°40′E / 4.43°S 103.67°E / -4.43; 103.67
Ranau caldera 1,881 metres (6,171 ft) unknown 4°50′S 103°55′E / 4.83°S 103.92°E / -4.83; 103.92
Sekincau Belirang caldera 1,719 metres (5,640 ft) unknown 5°07′S 104°19′E / 5.12°S 104.32°E / -5.12; 104.32
Suoh caldera 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) 10 July 1933 (4) 5°15′S 104°16′E / 5.25°S 104.27°E / -5.25; 104.27
Hulubelu caldera 1,040 metres (3,410 ft) 1836 5°21′S 104°36′E / 5.35°S 104.60°E / -5.35; 104.60
Rajabasa stratovolcano 1,281 metres (4,203 ft) 1798 5°46′48″S 105°37′30″E / 5.78°S 105.625°E / -5.78; 105.625
An overhead view of a land formation that is brightly coloured with patches of pink, blue, green, white, and black in irregular configurations.
Landsat image of Lake Toba 
A photograph depicting a blue sky with white clouds at the top, a grey mountain range in the middle, and green foliage at the bottom.
Marapi 

Sunda Strait and Java

The Sunda Strait separates the islands of Sumatra and Java with the volcanic island Krakatoa lying between them. Krakatau erupted violently in 1883, destroying two-thirds of the island and leaving a large caldera under the sea. This cataclysmic explosion was heard as far away as the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (approx. 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) away).[1] A new parasitic cone, called Anak Krakatau (or the child of Krakatau), rose from the sea at the centre of the caldera in 1930.[12] The other Krakatau islets from the 1883 eruptions are known as Sertung, Panjang and Rakata.

Java is a relatively small island compared to Sumatra, but it has a higher concentration of active volcanoes. There are 45 active volcanoes on the island excluding 20 small craters and cones in the Dieng volcanic complex and the young cones in the Tengger caldera complex. Some volcanoes are grouped together in the list below because of their close location. Mount Merapi, Semeru and Kelud are the most active volcanoes in Java. Mount Semeru has been continuously erupting since 1967.[13] Mount Merapi has been named as one of the Decade Volcanoes since 1995.[14] Ijen has a unique colourful caldera lake which is an extremely acidic natural reservoir (pH<0.3).[15] There are sulphur mining activities at Ijen, where miners collect highly concentrated sulphur rocks by hand.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
Krakatau caldera 813 metres (2,667 ft) 11 January 2011 6°06′07″S 105°25′23″E / 6.102°S 105.423°E / -6.102; 105.423
Pulosari stratovolcano 1,346 metres (4,416 ft) unknown 6°20′31″S 105°58′30″E / 6.342°S 105.975°E / -6.342; 105.975
Gunung Karang stratovolcano 1,778 metres (5,833 ft) unknown 6°16′12″S 106°02′31″E / 6.27°S 106.042°E / -6.27; 106.042
Kiaraberes-Gagak stratovolcano 1,511 metres (4,957 ft) 6 April 1939 (1) 6°44′S 106°39′E / 6.73°S 106.65°E / -6.73; 106.65
Perbakti stratovolcano 1,699 metres (5,574 ft) unknown 6°45′S 106°41′E / 6.75°S 106.68°E / -6.75; 106.68
Salak stratovolcano 2,211 metres (7,254 ft) 31 January 1938 (2) 6°43′S 106°44′E / 6.72°S 106.73°E / -6.72; 106.73
Gede stratovolcano 2,958 metres (9,705 ft) 13 March 1957 (2) 6°47′S 106°59′E / 6.78°S 106.98°E / -6.78; 106.98
Patuha stratovolcano 2,434 metres (7,986 ft) unknown 7°09′36″S 107°24′00″E / 7.160°S 107.40°E / -7.160; 107.40
Wayang-Windu lava dome 2,182 metres (7,159 ft) unknown 7°12′29″S 107°37′48″E / 7.208°S 107.63°E / -7.208; 107.63
Malabar stratovolcano 2,343 metres (7,687 ft) unknown 7°08′S 107°39′E / 7.13°S 107.65°E / -7.13; 107.65
Tangkuban Perahu stratovolcano 2,084 metres (6,837 ft) 14 September 1983 (1) 6°46′S 107°36′E / 6.77°S 107.60°E / -6.77; 107.60
Papandayan stratovolcano 2,665 metres (8,743 ft) 11 November 2002 (2) 7°19′S 107°44′E / 7.32°S 107.73°E / -7.32; 107.73
Kendang stratovolcano 2,608 metres (8,556 ft) unknown 7°14′S 107°43′E / 7.23°S 107.72°E / -7.23; 107.72
Kamojang stratovolcano 1,730 metres (5,680 ft) Pleistocene 7°07′30″S 107°48′00″E / 7.125°S 107.80°E / -7.125; 107.80
Guntur complex volcano 2,249 metres (7,379 ft) 16 October 1847 (2) 7°08′35″S 107°50′24″E / 7.143°S 107.840°E / -7.143; 107.840
Tampomas stratovolcano 1,684 metres (5,525 ft) unknown 6°46′S 107°57′E / 6.77°S 107.95°E / -6.77; 107.95
Galunggung stratovolcano 2,168 metres (7,113 ft) 9 January 1984 (1) 7°15′00″S 108°03′29″E / 7.25°S 108.058°E / -7.25; 108.058
Talagabodas stratovolcano 2,201 metres (7,221 ft) unknown 7°12′29″S 108°04′12″E / 7.208°S 108.07°E / -7.208; 108.07
Karaha fumarole 1,155 metres (3,789 ft) unknown 7°07′S 108°05′E / 7.12°S 108.08°E / -7.12; 108.08
Cereme stratovolcano 3,078 metres (10,098 ft) 1951 6°53′31″S 108°24′00″E / 6.892°S 108.40°E / -6.892; 108.40
Slamet stratovolcano 3,432 metres (11,260 ft) 1 May 1999 (1) 7°14′31″S 109°12′29″E / 7.242°S 109.208°E / -7.242; 109.208
Dieng complex volcano 2,565 metres (8,415 ft) 31 December 1996 (1) 7°12′S 109°55′E / 7.20°S 109.92°E / -7.20; 109.92
Sundoro stratovolcano 3,136 metres (10,289 ft) 29 October 1971 (2) 7°18′00″S 109°59′31″E / 7.30°S 109.992°E / -7.30; 109.992
Sumbing stratovolcano 3,371 metres (11,060 ft) 1730 (1) 7°23′02″S 110°04′12″E / 7.384°S 110.070°E / -7.384; 110.070
Ungaran stratovolcano 2,050 metres (6,730 ft) unknown 7°11′S 110°20′E / 7.18°S 110.33°E / -7.18; 110.33
Telomoyo stratovolcano 1,894 metres (6,214 ft) unknown 7°22′S 110°24′E / 7.37°S 110.40°E / -7.37; 110.40
Merbabu stratovolcano 3,145 metres (10,318 ft) 1797 (2) 7°27′S 110°26′E / 7.45°S 110.43°E / -7.45; 110.43
Merapi stratovolcano 2,968 metres (9,738 ft) 26 October 2010 (4)[16] 7°32′31″S 110°26′31″E / 7.542°S 110.442°E / -7.542; 110.442
Muria stratovolcano 1,625 metres (5,331 ft) 160 BC ± 30 years 6°37′S 110°53′E / 6.62°S 110.88°E / -6.62; 110.88
Lawu stratovolcano 3,265 metres (10,712 ft) 28 November 1885 (1) 7°37′30″S 111°11′31″E / 7.625°S 111.192°E / -7.625; 111.192
Wilis stratovolcano 2,563 metres (8,409 ft) unknown 7°48′29″S 111°45′29″E / 7.808°S 111.758°E / -7.808; 111.758
Kelud stratovolcano 1,731 metres (5,679 ft) 13 February 2014 (4) 7°55′48″S 112°18′29″E / 7.93°S 112.308°E / -7.93; 112.308
Kawi-Butak stratovolcano 2,651 metres (8,698 ft) unknown 7°55′S 112°27′E / 7.92°S 112.45°E / -7.92; 112.45
Arjuno-Welirang stratovolcano 3,339 metres (10,955 ft) 15 August 1952 (0) 7°43′30″S 112°34′48″E / 7.725°S 112.58°E / -7.725; 112.58
Penanggungan stratovolcano 1,653 metres (5,423 ft) unknown 7°37′S 112°38′E / 7.62°S 112.63°E / -7.62; 112.63
Malang Plain maar 680 metres (2,230 ft) unknown 8°01′S 112°41′E / 8.02°S 112.68°E / -8.02; 112.68
Semeru stratovolcano 3,676 metres (12,060 ft) 1967–2006 continuing (3) 8°06′29″S 112°55′12″E / 8.108°S 112.92°E / -8.108; 112.92
Tengger stratovolcano 2,329 metres (7,641 ft) 8 June 2004 (2) 7°56′31″S 112°57′00″E / 7.942°S 112.95°E / -7.942; 112.95
Lamongan stratovolcano 1,651 metres (5,417 ft) 5 February 1898 (2) 7°58′44″S 113°20′31″E / 7.979°S 113.342°E / -7.979; 113.342
Lurus complex volcano 539 metres (1,768 ft) unknown 7°44′S 113°35′E / 7.73°S 113.58°E / -7.73; 113.58
Iyang-Argapura complex volcano 3,088 metres (10,131 ft) unknown 7°58′S 113°34′E / 7.97°S 113.57°E / -7.97; 113.57
Raung stratovolcano 3,332 metres (10,932 ft) 29 June 2015 (?) 8°07′30″S 114°02′31″E / 8.125°S 114.042°E / -8.125; 114.042
Ijen stratovolcano 2,799 metres (9,183 ft) 28 June 1999 (1) 8°03′29″S 114°14′31″E / 8.058°S 114.242°E / -8.058; 114.242
Baluran stratovolcano 1,247 metres (4,091 ft) unknown 7°51′S 114°22′E / 7.85°S 114.37°E / -7.85; 114.37

Note: Height of Krakatau is of Rakata, not of the active Anak Krakatau

A photograph depicting a white sky at the top, a grey land configuration in the middle, and a body of water swirling around at the bottom.
Tangkuban Perahu, taken from above 
A photograph depicting lightning striking a volcano that is in the process of erupting bright yellow lava into the air, all surrounded by a red haze.
Lightning striking during the 1982 Galunggung eruption 
A photograph depicting a blue sky with white clouds at the top, a dark grey volcano in the middle, and green foliage at the bottom.
Mount Merapi, the most active volcano in Indonesia 
A photograph depicting a blue sky with white clouds at the top, a light grey lake in the middle, and dark grey rocks surrounding the lake.
The turquoise coloured sulphuric acid lake on the Ijen caldera 

Lesser Sunda Islands

The Lesser Sunda Islands is a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and the Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf. Volcanoes in the area are formed because of oceanic crusts and the movement of the shelf itself.[17] Some volcanoes completely form an island, for instance, the Sangeang Api island. Mount Tambora, on Sumbawa island, erupted on 5 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI and is considered the most violent eruption in recorded history.[3]

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
Merbuk tba 1,386 metres (4,547 ft) unknown -
Bratan caldera 2,276 metres (7,467 ft) unknown 8°17′S 115°08′E / 8.28°S 115.13°E / -8.28; 115.13
Batur caldera 1,717 metres (5,633 ft) 15 March 1999 (1) 8°14′31″S 115°22′30″E / 8.242°S 115.375°E / -8.242; 115.375
Agung stratovolcano 3,142 metres (10,308 ft) 18 February 1963 (5) 8°20′31″S 115°30′29″E / 8.342°S 115.508°E / -8.342; 115.508
Rinjani stratovolcano 3,726 metres (12,224 ft) 1 October 2004 (2) 8°25′S 116°28′E / 8.42°S 116.47°E / -8.42; 116.47
Tambora stratovolcano 2,722 metres (8,930 ft) 1967 ± 20 years (0) 8°15′S 118°00′E / 8.25°S 118.00°E / -8.25; 118.00
Sangeang Api complex volcano 1,949 metres (6,394 ft) 30 May 2014 (?) 8°12′S 119°04′E / 8.20°S 119.07°E / -8.20; 119.07
Wai Sano caldera 903 metres (2,963 ft) unknown 8°43′S 120°01′E / 8.72°S 120.02°E / -8.72; 120.02
Poco Leok unknown 1,675 metres (5,495 ft) unknown 8°41′S 120°29′E / 8.68°S 120.48°E / -8.68; 120.48
Ranakah lava dome 2,100 metres (6,900 ft) March 1991 (1) 8°37′S 120°31′E / 8.62°S 120.52°E / -8.62; 120.52
Inierie stratovolcano 2,245 metres (7,365 ft) 8050 BC 8°52′30″S 120°57′00″E / 8.875°S 120.95°E / -8.875; 120.95
Inielika complex volcano 1,559 metres (5,115 ft) 11 January 2001 (2) 8°44′S 120°59′E / 8.73°S 120.98°E / -8.73; 120.98
Ebulobo stratovolcano 2,124 metres (6,969 ft) 27 February 1969 (2) 8°49′S 121°11′E / 8.82°S 121.18°E / -8.82; 121.18
Iya stratovolcano 637 metres (2,090 ft) 27 January 1969 (3) 8°53′49″S 121°38′42″E / 8.897°S 121.645°E / -8.897; 121.645
Sukaria caldera 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) unknown 8°47′31″S 121°46′12″E / 8.792°S 121.77°E / -8.792; 121.77
Ndete Napu fumarole 750 metres (2,460 ft) unknown 8°43′S 121°47′E / 8.72°S 121.78°E / -8.72; 121.78
Kelimutu complex volcano 1,639 metres (5,377 ft) 3 June 1968 (1) 8°46′S 121°49′E / 8.77°S 121.82°E / -8.77; 121.82
Paluweh stratovolcano 875 metres (2,871 ft) 3 February 1985 (1) 8°19′12″S 121°42′29″E / 8.32°S 121.708°E / -8.32; 121.708
Egon stratovolcano 1,703 metres (5,587 ft) 6 February 2005 (1) 8°40′S 122°27′E / 8.67°S 122.45°E / -8.67; 122.45
Ilimuda stratovolcano 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) unknown 8°28′41″S 122°40′16″E / 8.478°S 122.671°E / -8.478; 122.671
Lewotobi stratovolcano 1,703 metres (5,587 ft) 30 May 2003 (2) 8°32′31″S 122°46′30″E / 8.542°S 122.775°E / -8.542; 122.775
Leroboleng complex volcano 1,117 metres (3,665 ft) 26 June 2003 (3) 8°21′29″S 122°50′31″E / 8.358°S 122.842°E / -8.358; 122.842
Riang Kotang fumarole 200 metres (660 ft) unknown 8°18′00″S 122°53′31″E / 8.30°S 122.892°E / -8.30; 122.892
Iliboleng stratovolcano 1,659 metres (5,443 ft) June 1993 (1) 8°20′31″S 123°15′29″E / 8.342°S 123.258°E / -8.342; 123.258
Lewotolo stratovolcano 1,423 metres (4,669 ft) 15 December 1951 (2) 8°16′19″S 123°30′18″E / 8.272°S 123.505°E / -8.272; 123.505
Ililabalekan stratovolcano 1,018 metres (3,340 ft) unknown 8°33′S 123°23′E / 8.55°S 123.38°E / -8.55; 123.38
Iliwerung complex volcano 1,018 metres (3,340 ft) 22 May 1999 (0) 8°32′S 123°34′E / 8.53°S 123.57°E / -8.53; 123.57
Batu Tara stratovolcano 748 metres (2,454 ft) 1847 (2) 7°47′31″S 123°34′44″E / 7.792°S 123.579°E / -7.792; 123.579
Sirung complex volcano 862 metres (2,828 ft) 1970 (2) 8°30′29″S 124°07′48″E / 8.508°S 124.13°E / -8.508; 124.13
Yersey submarine −3,800 metres (−12,500 ft) unknown 7°32′S 123°57′E / 7.53°S 123.95°E / -7.53; 123.95
A photograph depicting a blue sky at the top, a grey mountain range in the middle, white clouds in front of the mountain range, and a rocky terrain at the bottom.
Mount Agung on Bali 
A photograph depicting a white bolt of lightning with a purple aura striking a volcano as it erupts yellow lava with a red aura and black smoke.
Eruption of Rinjani in 1984 
A photograph depicting a blue sky with white clouds at the top, a grey mountain range in the middle, a blue body of water below that, and a rocky terrain in the foreground.
One of three different coloured lakes of Kelimutu 

Banda Sea

The Banda Sea in the south of the Molucca archipelago includes a small group of islands. Three major tectonic plates beneath the sea, Eurasian, Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, have been converging since the Mesozoic epoch.[18] Volcanoes in the Banda Sea are mainly islands, but some are submarine volcanoes.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
Emperor of China submarine −2,850 metres (−9,350 ft) unknown 6°37′S 124°13′E / 6.62°S 124.22°E / -6.62; 124.22
Nieuwerkerk submarine −2,285 metres (−7,497 ft) unknown 6°36′00″S 124°40′30″E / 6.60°S 124.675°E / -6.60; 124.675
Gunungapi Wetar stratovolcano 282 metres (925 ft) 1699 (3) 6°38′31″S 126°39′00″E / 6.642°S 126.65°E / -6.642; 126.65
Wurlali stratovolcano 868 metres (2,848 ft) 3 June 1892 (2) 7°07′30″S 128°40′30″E / 7.125°S 128.675°E / -7.125; 128.675
Teon stratovolcano 655 metres (2,149 ft) 3 June 1904 (2) 6°55′12″S 129°07′30″E / 6.92°S 129.125°E / -6.92; 129.125
Nila stratovolcano 781 metres (2,562 ft) 7 May 1968 (1) 6°44′S 129°30′E / 6.73°S 129.50°E / -6.73; 129.50
Serua stratovolcano 641 metres (2,103 ft) 18 September 1921 (2) 6°18′S 130°00′E / 6.30°S 130.00°E / -6.30; 130.00
Manuk stratovolcano 282 metres (925 ft) unknown 5°31′48″S 130°17′31″E / 5.53°S 130.292°E / -5.53; 130.292
Banda Api caldera 640 metres (2,100 ft) 9 May 1988 (3) 4°31′30″S 129°52′16″E / 4.525°S 129.871°E / -4.525; 129.871

Sulawesi and Sangihe Islands

Four peninsulas dominate the shape of Sulawesi island (formerly known as Celebes). The central part is a high mountainous area, but mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern peninsula and continuously stretch to the north to Sangihe Islands. The Sangihe Islands mark the border with the Philippines.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
Colo stratovolcano 507 metres (1,663 ft) 18 July 1983 (4) 0°10′12″S 121°36′29″E / 0.17°S 121.608°E / -0.17; 121.608
Ambang complex volcano 1,795 metres (5,889 ft) 1845 ± 5 years 0°45′N 124°25′E / 0.75°N 124.42°E / 0.75; 124.42
Soputan stratovolcano 1,784 metres (5,853 ft) 24–30 October 2007 1°06′29″N 124°43′48″E / 1.108°N 124.73°E / 1.108; 124.73
Sempu caldera 1,549 metres (5,082 ft) unknown 1°07′48″N 124°45′29″E / 1.13°N 124.758°E / 1.13; 124.758
Tondano caldera 1,202 metres (3,944 ft) unknown 1°14′N 124°50′E / 1.23°N 124.83°E / 1.23; 124.83
Lokon-Empung stratovolcano 1,580 metres (5,180 ft) 15 July 2011 1°21′29″N 124°47′31″E / 1.358°N 124.792°E / 1.358; 124.792
Mahawu stratovolcano 1,324 metres (4,344 ft) 16 November 1977 (0) 1°21′29″N 124°51′29″E / 1.358°N 124.858°E / 1.358; 124.858
Klabat stratovolcano 1,995 metres (6,545 ft) unknown 1°28′N 125°02′E / 1.47°N 125.03°E / 1.47; 125.03
Tongkoko stratovolcano 1,149 metres (3,770 ft) 1880 (1) 1°31′N 125°12′E / 1.52°N 125.20°E / 1.52; 125.20
Ruang stratovolcano 725 metres (2,379 ft) 25 September 2002 (4) 2°18′N 125°22′E / 2.30°N 125.37°E / 2.30; 125.37
Karangetang stratovolcano 1,784 metres (5,853 ft) August 2007 2°47′N 125°24′E / 2.78°N 125.40°E / 2.78; 125.40
Banua Wuhu submarine −5 metres (−16 ft) 18 July 1919 (3) 3°08′17″N 125°29′28″E / 3.138°N 125.491°E / 3.138; 125.491
Awu stratovolcano 1,320 metres (4,330 ft) 2 June 2004 (2) 3°40′N 125°30′E / 3.67°N 125.50°E / 3.67; 125.50
Submarine 1922 submarine −5,000 metres (−16,000 ft) unknown 3°58′N 125°10′E / 3.97°N 125.17°E / 3.97; 125.17
Vuurberg (Dutch: fire mountain, Gunung Api) in Bandanaira

Halmahera

Halmahera island in the north of Molucca archipelago has been formed by the movement of three tectonic plates resulting in two intersecting mountain ranges, which form four rocky peninsulas separated by three deep bays. A volcanic arc stretches from north to south in the west side of Halmahera, some of which are volcanic islands, for instance, Gamalama and Tidore. Gamalama's island name is Ternate and it has been the centre for spice trading since the Portuguese Empire opened a fort in 1512. Due to its location as the centre for spice trading during the Age of Discovery, historical records of volcanic eruptions in Halmahera have been available as far back as the early 16th century.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
Tarakan pyroclastic cone 318 metres (1,043 ft) unknown 1°50′N 127°50′E / 1.83°N 127.83°E / 1.83; 127.83
Dukono complex volcano 1,335 metres (4,380 ft) 13 August 1933 (3) 1°41′N 127°53′E / 1.68°N 127.88°E / 1.68; 127.88
Tobaru unknown 1,035 metres (3,396 ft) unknown 1°38′N 127°40′E / 1.63°N 127.67°E / 1.63; 127.67
Ibu stratovolcano 1,325 metres (4,347 ft) May 2005 (0) 1°29′17″N 127°37′48″E / 1.488°N 127.63°E / 1.488; 127.63
Gamkonora stratovolcano 1,635 metres (5,364 ft) 9 July 2007 (?) 1°23′N 127°32′E / 1.38°N 127.53°E / 1.38; 127.53
Todoko-Ranu caldera 979 metres (3,212 ft) unknown 1°15′N 127°28′E / 1.25°N 127.47°E / 1.25; 127.47
Jailolo stratovolcano 1,130 metres (3,710 ft) unknown 1°05′N 127°25′E / 1.08°N 127.42°E / 1.08; 127.42
Hiri stratovolcano 630 metres (2,070 ft) unknown 0°54′N 127°19′E / 0.90°N 127.32°E / 0.90; 127.32
Gamalama stratovolcano 1,715 metres (5,627 ft) 31 July 2003 (2) 0°48′N 127°20′E / 0.80°N 127.33°E / 0.80; 127.33
Tidore stratovolcano 1,730 metres (5,680 ft) unknown 0°39′29″N 127°24′00″E / 0.658°N 127.40°E / 0.658; 127.40
Mare stratovolcano 308 metres (1,010 ft) unknown 0°34′N 127°24′E / 0.57°N 127.40°E / 0.57; 127.40
Moti stratovolcano 950 metres (3,120 ft) unknown 0°27′N 127°24′E / 0.45°N 127.40°E / 0.45; 127.40
Makian stratovolcano 1,357 metres (4,452 ft) 29 July 1988 (3) 0°19′N 127°24′E / 0.32°N 127.40°E / 0.32; 127.40
Tigalalu stratovolcano 422 metres (1,385 ft) unknown 0°04′N 127°25′E / 0.07°N 127.42°E / 0.07; 127.42
Amasing stratovolcano 1,030 metres (3,380 ft) unknown 0°32′S 127°29′E / 0.53°S 127.48°E / -0.53; 127.48
Bibinoi stratovolcano 900 metres (3,000 ft) unknown 0°46′S 127°43′E / 0.77°S 127.72°E / -0.77; 127.72
A drawing of a volcano erupting orange lava and black smoke into the air with a body of water in the foreground and ships sailing in it.
Depiction of Gamalama erupting in the early 1700s with a Portuguese fort shown

Major eruptions

Below is a list of selected major eruptions of volcanoes in Indonesia, sorted chronologically by the starting date of the eruption. Only eruptions with scale 3 or above on VEI are given with known sources and fatalities, except if smaller scale eruptions resulted some fatalities.

Eruption date Volcano Cessation date VEI Characteristics Tsunami Tephra volume Fatality Sources
3 November 2010 Merapi 8 November 2010 4 cv,pf,ld,lm no N/A 138 [5]
10 February 1990 Kelut March 1990 4 cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lm no 0.13 km³ 35 [19]
18 July 1983 Colo December 1983 4 cv,pf,ph no N/A 0 [19]
5 April 1982 Galunggung 8 January 1983 4 cv,pf,lf,lm no 0.37 km³ + 68 [20][21]
6 October 1972 Merapi March 1985 2 cv,pf,lf,ld,lm no 0.021 km³ 29 [5]
26 April 1966 Kelut 27 April 1966 4 cv,cl,pf,lm no 0.089 km³ 212 [19]
17 March 1963 Agung 27 January 1964 5 cv,pf,lf,lm no 1 km³ 1,148 [22]
31 August 1951 Kelut 31 August 1951 4 cv,cl,pf,lm no 0.2 km³ 7 [19]
25 November 1930 Merapi September 1931 3 cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lm no 0.0017 km³ 1,369 [5]
19 May 1919 Kelut 20 May 1919 4 cv,cl,pf,lm no 0.19 km³ 5,110 [19]
7 June 1892 Awu 12 June 1892 3 cv,pf,lm yes N/A 1,532 [23]
26 August 1883 Krakatau February 1884 6 cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc 15–42 m 5–8.5 km³ 36,600 [1][22][24]
15 April 1872 Merapi 21 April 1872 4 cv,pf no 0.33 km³ 200 [5]
2 March 1856 Awu 17 March 1856 3 cv,pf,lm yes 0.51±0.50 km³ 2,806 [23]
8 October 1822 Galunggung December 1822 5 cv,pf,ld,lm no 1 km³ + 4,011 [19]
10 April 1815 Mount Tambora 15 July 1815 7 cv,pf,cc 1–2 m 160 km³ 71,000+ [3][25]
6 August 1812 Awu 8 August 1812 4 cv,pf,lm no 0.55±0.50 km³ 963 [23]
12 August 1772 Papandayan 12 August 1772 3 cv,ph no N/A 2,957 [26]
4 August 1672 Merapi unknown 3 cv,pf,lm no N/A 3,000 [5]
1586 Kelut unknown 5 cf,cl,lm no 1 km³ + 10,000 [19]
≈ 74,000 BP Toba unknown 8 pf,lf,cc likely 2,800 km³ near extinction all of the human population [2]
Notes: cv=central vent eruption, pf=pyroclastic flows, lf=lava flows, lm=lahar mudflows, cl=crater lake eruption, ph=phreatic eruption, ld=lava dome extrusion, cc=caldera collapse, se=submarine eruption, fa=fumarole activity, rf=radial fissure eruption.

See also

References

General references

  1. ↑ Tom Simkin & Lee Siebert (1994). Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years (2nd ed.). Geoscience Press. ISBN 0-945005-12-1.
  2. ↑ M. Neumann van Padang (1951). "Indonesia". Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields (1 ed.). Rome: IAVCEI. pp. 1–271.

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Winchester, Simon (2003). Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-621285-5.
  2. 1 2 3 Oppenheimer, C. (2002). "Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 21 (14–15): 1593–1609. Bibcode:2002QSRv...21.1593O. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8.
  3. 1 2 3 Stothers, Richard B. (1984). "The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath". Science. 224 (4654): 1191–1198. Bibcode:1984Sci...224.1191S. doi:10.1126/science.224.4654.1191. PMID 17819476.
  4. ↑ "Kelut Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Merapi Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  6. ↑ "Indonesia Miliki 127 Gunung Api Aktif". 2 May 2012.
  7. ↑ "Volcano Data Criteria". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
  8. ↑ "Centre of Volcanology & Geological Hazard Mitigation". Volcanological Survey of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 16 December 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  9. 1 2 Simoes, M., Avouac, J.P., Cattin, R., Henry, P. (2004). "The Sumatra subduction zone: A case for a locked fault zone extending into the mantle" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 109: B10402. Bibcode:2004JGRB..10910402S. doi:10.1029/2003JB002958.
  10. ↑ Subarya, C., Chlieh, M., Prawirodirdjo, L., Avouac, J.P., Bock, Y., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A., Natawidjaja, D.H., McCaffrey, R. (2006). "Plate-boundary deformation associated with the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake" (PDF). Nature. 440 (7080): 46–51. Bibcode:2006Natur.440...46S. doi:10.1038/nature04522. PMID 16511486.
  11. ↑ Lay, T., Kanamori, H., Ammon, C., Nettles, M., Ward, S., Aster, R., Beck, S., Bilek, S., Brudzinski, M., Butler, R., DeShon, H., Ekstrom, G. (2005). "The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004" (PDF). Science. 308 (5725): 1127–1133. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1127L. doi:10.1126/science.1112250. PMID 15905392.
  12. ↑ Whittaker, R. J.; Bush, M. B. (1993). "Anak Krakatau and old Krakatau: a reply". GeoJournal. 29 (4): 417–420. doi:10.1007/BF00807545.
  13. ↑ "Semeru Weekly Reports". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
  14. ↑ International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (1995). "Decade Volcano Update". Bulletin of Volcanology. 57 (1): 82–83. Bibcode:1995BVol...57...76.. doi:10.1007/BF00298711.
  15. ↑ Ansje Löhr; Thom Bogaard; Alex Heikens; Martin Hendriks; Sri Sumarti; Manfred van Bergen; Kees C.A.M. van Gestel; Nico van Straalen; Pieter Vroonand & Budi Widianarko (2005). "Natural Pollution Caused by the Extremely Acid Crater Lake Kawah Ijen, East Java, Indonesia". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 12 (2): 89–95. doi:10.1065/espr2004.09.118.
  16. ↑ "Mount Merapi Erupts". ANTARA. 26 October 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
  17. ↑ H. A. Brouwer (July 1939). "Exploration in the Lesser Sunda Islands". The Geographical Journal. Blackwell Publishing. 94 (1): 1–10. doi:10.2307/1788584. JSTOR 1788584.
  18. ↑ Christian Honthaasa, Jean-Pierre Réhaulta, René C. Maurya, Hervé Bellona, Christophe Hémonda, Jacques-André Maloda, Jean-Jacques Cornéeb, Michel Villeneuveb, Joseph Cottena, Safri Burhanuddinc, Hervé Guilloud and Nicolas Arnaud (1998). "A Neogene back-arc origin for the Banda Sea basins: geochemical and geochronological constraints from the Banda ridges (East Indonesia)". Tectonophysics. 298 (4): 297–317. Bibcode:1998Tectp.298..297H. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00190-5.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Large Holocene Eruptions". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 18 December 2006.
  20. ↑ Katili, J.A. & Sudradjat, A. (1984). "Galunggung: the 1982-1983 eruption". Volcanology Survei Indonesia: 102.
  21. ↑ "Galunggung, Java, Indonesia". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 16 June 2008. Retrieved 30 December 2006.
  22. 1 2 Michael R. Rampino & Stephen Self (1982). "Historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols, and climatic impact". Quaternary Research. 18 (2): 127–143. Bibcode:1982QuRes..18..127R. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(82)90065-5.
  23. 1 2 3 "Awu's Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 31 December 2006.
  24. ↑ B.H. Choi, E. Pelinovsky, K.O. Kim and J.S. Lee (2003). "Simulation of the trans-oceanic tsunami propagation due to the 1883 Krakatau volcanic eruption" (PDF). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 3 (5): 321–332. doi:10.5194/nhess-3-321-2003.
  25. ↑ Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra.
  26. ↑ "The Deadliest Eruptions". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
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