Adenosine deaminase

ADA
Available structures
PDBOrtholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
Aliases ADA, entrez:100, Adenosine deaminase
External IDs OMIM: 608958 MGI: 87916 HomoloGene: 37249 GeneCards: ADA
Targeted by Drug
pentostatin[1]
RNA expression pattern


More reference expression data
Orthologs
Species Human Mouse
Entrez

100

11486

Ensembl

ENSG00000196839

ENSMUSG00000017697

UniProt

P00813

P03958

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_000022
NM_001322050
NM_001322051

NM_001272052
NM_007398

RefSeq (protein)

NP_000013.2

NP_001258981.1
NP_031424.1

Location (UCSC) Chr 20: 44.62 – 44.65 Mb Chr 2: 163.73 – 163.75 Mb
PubMed search [2] [3]
Wikidata
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse
Adenosine/AMP deaminase

crystal structure of plasmodium yoelii adenosine deaminase (py02076)
Identifiers
Symbol A_deaminase
Pfam PF00962
Pfam clan CL0034
InterPro IPR001365
PROSITE PDOC00419
SCOP 1add
SUPERFAMILY 1add
Adenosine deaminase (editase) domain
Identifiers
Symbol A_deamin
Pfam PF02137
InterPro IPR002466
PROSITE PDOC00419
SCOP 1add
SUPERFAMILY 1add
Adenosine/AMP deaminase N-terminal
Identifiers
Symbol A_deaminase_N
Pfam PF08451
InterPro IPR013659

Adenosine Deaminase (also known as adenosine aminohydrolase, or ADA) is an enzyme (EC 3.5.4.4) involved in purine metabolism. It is needed for the breakdown of adenosine from food and for the turnover of nucleic acids in tissues.

Its primary function in humans is the development and maintenance of the immune system.[4] However, the full physiological role of ADA is not yet completely understood.[5]

Structure

ADA exists in both small form (as a monomer) and large form (as a dimer-complex).[5] In the monomer form, the enzyme is a polypeptide chain,[6] folded into eight strands of parallel α/β barrels, which surround a central deep pocket that is the active site.[4] In addition to the eight central β-barrels and eight peripheral α-helices, ADA also contains five additional helices: residues 19-76 fold into three helices, located between β1 and α1 folds; and two antiparallel carboxy-terminal helices are located across the amino-terminal of the β-barrel.

The ADA active site contains a zinc ion, which is located in the deepest recess of the active site and coordinated by five atoms from His15, His17, His214, Asp295, and the substrate.[4] Zinc is the only cofactor necessary for activity.

The substrate, adenosine, is stabilized and bound to the active site by nine hydrogen bonds.[4] The carboxyl group of Glu217, roughly coplanar with the substrate purine ring, is in position to form a hydrogen bond with N1 of the substrate. The carboxyl group of Asp296, also coplanar with the substrate purine ring, forms hydrogen bond with N7 of the substrate. The NH group of Gly184 is in position to form a hydrogen bond with N3 of the substrate. Asp296 forms bonds both with the Zn2+ ion as well as with 6-OH of the substrate. His238 also hydrogen bonds to substrate 6-OH. The 3'-OH of the substrate ribose forms a hydrogen bond with Asp19, while the 5'-OH forms a hydrogen bond with His17. Two further hydrogen bonds are formed to water molecules, at the opening of the active site, by the 2'-OH and 3'-OH of the substrate.

Due to the recessing of the active site inside the enzyme, the substrate, once bound, is almost completely sequestered from solvent.[4] The surface exposure of the substrate to solvent when bound is 0.5% the surface exposure of the substrate in the free state.

Reactions

ADA irreversibly deaminates adenosine, converting it to the related nucleoside inosine by the substitution of the amino group for a keto group.

Adenosine
Inosine

Inosine can then be deribosylated (removed from ribose) by another enzyme called purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), converting it to hypoxanthine.

Mechanism of catalysis

Two proposed mechanisms exist for ADA-catalyzed deamination: 1) stereospecific addition-elimination via tetrahedral intermediate or 2) an SN2 reaction.[5][7] By either mechanism, Zn2+ as a strong electrophile activates a water molecule, which is deprotonated by the basic Asp295 to form the attacking hydroxide.[4] His238 orients the water molecule and stabilizes the charge of the attacking hydroxide. Glu217 is protonated to donate a proton to N1 of the substrate.

The reaction is stereospecific due to the location of the zinc, Asp295, and His238 residues, which all face the B-side of the purine ring of the substrate.[4]

Competitive inhibition has been observed for ADA, where the product inosine acts at the competitive inhibitor to enzymatic activity.[8]

Function

ADA is considered one of the key enzymes of purine metabolism.[7] The enzyme has been found in bacteria, plants, invertebrates, vertebrates, and mammals, with high conservation of amino acid sequence.[5] The high degree of amino acid sequence conservation suggests the crucial nature of ADA in the purine salvage pathway.

Primarily, ADA in humans is involved in the development and maintenance of the immune system. However, ADA association has also been observed with epithelial cell differentiation, neurotransmission, and gestation maintenance.[9] It has also been proposed that ADA, in addition to adenosine breakdown, stimulates release of excitatory amino acids and is necessary to the coupling of A1 adenosine receptors and heterotrimeric G proteins.[5] Adenosine deaminase deficiency leads to pulmonary fibrosis,[10] suggesting that chronic exposure to high levels of adenosine can exacerbate inflammation responses rather than suppressing them. It has also been recognized that adenosine deaminase protein and activity is upregulated in mouse hearts that overexpress HIF-1 alpha, which in part explains the attenuated levels of adenosine in HIF-1 alpha expressing hearts during ischemic stress.[11]

Pathology

Some mutations in the gene for adenosine deaminase cause it not to be expressed. The resulting deficiency is one cause of severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).[12] Deficient levels of ADA have also been associated with pulmonary inflammation, thymic cell death, and defective T-cell receptor signaling.[13][14]

Conversely, mutations causing this enzyme to be overexpressed are one cause of hemolytic anemia .[15]

There is some evidence that a different allele (ADA2) may lead to autism.[16]

Elevated levels of ADA has also been associated with AIDS.[13][17]

Isoforms

There are 2 isoforms of ADA: ADA1 and ADA2.

Clinical significance

ADA2 is the predominant form present in human blood plasma and is increased in many diseases, particularly those associated with the immune system: for example rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and sarcoidosis. The plasma ADA2 isoform is also increased in most cancers. ADA2 is not ubiquitous but co-exists with ADA1 only in monocytes-macrophages.

Total plasma ADA can be measured using high performance liquid chromatography or enzymatic or colorimetric techniques. Perhaps the simplest system is the measurement of the ammonia released from adenosine when broken down to inosine. After incubation of plasma with a buffered solution of adenosine the ammonia is reacted with a Berthelot reagent to form a blue colour which is proportionate to the amount of enzyme activity. To measure ADA2, erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3-nonyl) adenine (EHNA) is added prior to incubation so as to inhibit the enzymatic activity of ADA1.[19] It is the absence of ADA1 that causes SCID.

ADA can also be used in the workup of lymphocytic pleural effusions or peritoneal ascites, in that such specimens with low ADA levels essentially excludes tuberculosis from consideration.[21]

Tuberculosis pleural effusions can now be diagnosed accurately by increased levels of pleural fluid adenosine deaminase, above 40 U per liter.[22]

Cladribine is an anti-neoplastic agent used in the treatment of hairy cell leukemia; its mechanism of action is inhibition of adenosine deaminase.

Coformycin was also described as a adenosine deaminase inhibitor but is alleged to be an antibiotic.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Drugs that physically interact with Adenosine deaminase view/edit references on wikidata".
  2. ↑ "Human PubMed Reference:".
  3. ↑ "Mouse PubMed Reference:".
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wilson DK, Rudolph FB, Quiocho FA (May 1991). "Atomic structure of adenosine deaminase complexed with a transition-state analog: understanding catalysis and immunodeficiency mutations". Science. 252 (5010): 1278–1284. doi:10.1126/science.1925539. PMID 1925539.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cristalli G, Costanzi S, Lambertucci C, Lupidi G, Vittori S, Volpini R, Camaioni E (Mar 2001). "Adenosine deaminase: functional implications and different classes of inhibitors". Medicinal Research Reviews. 21 (2): 105–128. doi:10.1002/1098-1128(200103)21:2<105::AID-MED1002>3.0.CO;2-U. PMID 11223861.
  6. ↑ Daddona PE, Kelley WN (Jan 1977). "Human adenosine deaminase. Purification and subunit structure". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 252 (1): 110–115. PMID 13062.
  7. 1 2 Glader BE, Backer K, Diamond LK (Dec 1983). "Elevated erythrocyte adenosine deaminase activity in congenital hypoplastic anemia". The New England Journal of Medicine. 309 (24): 1486–1490. doi:10.1056/NEJM198312153092404. PMID 6646173.
  8. ↑ Saboury AA, Divsalar A, Jafari GA, Moosavi-Movahedi AA, Housaindokht MR, Hakimelahi GH (May 2002). "A product inhibition study on adenosine deaminase by spectroscopy and calorimetry". Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 35 (3): 302–305. doi:10.5483/BMBRep.2002.35.3.302. PMID 12297022.
  9. ↑ Moriwaki Y, Yamamoto T, Higashino K (Oct 1999). "Enzymes involved in purine metabolism--a review of histochemical localization and functional implications". Histology and Histopathology. 14 (4): 1321–1340. PMID 10506947.
  10. ↑ Blackburn MR (2003). "Too much of a good thing: adenosine overload in adenosine-deaminase-deficient mice". Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 24 (2): 66–70. doi:10.1016/S0165-6147(02)00045-7. PMID 12559769.
  11. ↑ Wu J, Bond C, Chen P, Chen M, Li Y, Shohet RV, Wright G (2015). "HIF-1α in the heart: remodeling nucleotide metabolism". Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 82: 194–200. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.01.014. PMID 25681585.
  12. ↑ Sanchez JJ, Monaghan G, Børsting C, Norbury G, Morling N, Gaspar HB (May 2007). "Carrier frequency of a nonsense mutation in the adenosine deaminase (ADA) gene implies a high incidence of ADA-deficient severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) in Somalia and a single, common haplotype indicates common ancestry". Annals of Human Genetics. 71 (Pt 3): 336–47. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00338.x. PMID 17181544.
  13. 1 2 Blackburn MR, Kellems RE (2005). "Adenosine deaminase deficiency: metabolic basis of immune deficiency and pulmonary inflammation". Advances in Immunology. Advances in Immunology. 86: 1–41. doi:10.1016/S0065-2776(04)86001-2. ISBN 9780120044863. PMID 15705418.
  14. ↑ Apasov SG, Blackburn MR, Kellems RE, Smith PT, Sitkovsky MV (Jul 2001). "Adenosine deaminase deficiency increases thymic apoptosis and causes defective T cell receptor signaling". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 108 (1): 131–141. doi:10.1172/JCI10360. PMC 209335Freely accessible. PMID 11435465.
  15. ↑ Chottiner EG, Cloft HJ, Tartaglia AP, Mitchell BS (Mar 1987). "Elevated adenosine deaminase activity and hereditary hemolytic anemia. Evidence for abnormal translational control of protein synthesis". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 79 (3): 1001–5. doi:10.1172/JCI112866. PMC 424261Freely accessible. PMID 3029177.
  16. ↑ Persico AM, Militerni R, Bravaccio C, Schneider C, Melmed R, Trillo S, Montecchi F, Palermo MT, Pascucci T, Puglisi-Allegra S, Reichelt KL, Conciatori M, Baldi A, Keller F (Dec 2000). "Adenosine deaminase alleles and autistic disorder: case-control and family-based association studies". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 96 (6): 784–90. doi:10.1002/1096-8628(20001204)96:6<784::AID-AJMG18>3.0.CO;2-7. PMID 11121182.
  17. ↑ Cowan MJ, Brady RO, Widder KJ (Feb 1986). "Elevated erythrocyte adenosine deaminase activity in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 83 (4): 1089–1091. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.4.1089. PMC 323016Freely accessible. PMID 3006027.
  18. ↑ Schrader WP, Stacy AR (Sep 1977). "Purification and subunit structure of adenosine deaminase from human kidney". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 252 (18): 6409–6415. PMID 893413.
  19. 1 2 Schrader WP, Pollara B, Meuwissen HJ (Jan 1978). "Characterization of the residual adenosine deaminating activity in the spleen of a patient with combined immunodeficiency disease and adenosine deaminase deficiency". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 75 (1): 446–50. doi:10.1073/pnas.75.1.446. PMC 411266Freely accessible. PMID 24216.
  20. ↑ Zavialov AV, Engström A (Oct 2005). "Human ADA2 belongs to a new family of growth factors with adenosine deaminase activity". The Biochemical Journal. 391 (Pt 1): 51–57. doi:10.1042/BJ20050683. PMC 1237138Freely accessible. PMID 15926889.
  21. ↑ Jiménez Castro D, Díaz Nuevo G, Pérez-Rodríguez E, Light RW (2003). "Diagnostic value of adenosine deaminase in nontuberculous lymphocytic pleural effusions" (PDF). Eur. Respir. J. 21 (2): 220–4. doi:10.1183/09031936.03.00051603. PMID 12608433.
  22. ↑ Brunicardi F, Andersen D, Billiar T, Dunn D, Hunter J, Pollock RE (2005). "Chapter 18, question 16". Schwartz's principles of surgery (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0071410908.

Further reading

External links

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