Gun laws in Australia

Firearms were introduced to Australia with European settlement on 26 January 1788, though other seafarers that visited Australia before settlement also carried firearms. The colony of New South Wales was initially a penal settlement, with the military garrison being armed. Firearms were also used for hunting, protection of persons and crops, in crime and fighting crime, and in many military engagements. From the landing of the First Fleet there was conflict with Aborigines. Firearms were used to protect explorers and settlers from Aboriginal attack.

Gun laws in Australia became a political issue in the 1980s. Low levels of violent crime through much of the 20th century kept levels of public concern about firearms low. In the last two decades of the century, following several high-profile killing sprees and a media campaign, the Australian government coordinated more restrictive firearms legislation with all state governments. Gun laws were largely aligned in 1996 by the National Firearms Agreement.

A person who possesses or uses a firearm must have a firearm licence. Licence holders must be at least 18 years of age, have a "genuine reason" for holding a firearm licence[1] and must not be a "prohibited person". All firearms in Australia must be registered by serial number to the owner, who also holds a firearms licence.

National legislative structure

The ownership, possession and use of firearms in Australia is regulated by state laws.[2] Until 1996, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia had different gun laws. For example, long guns were not registered in Queensland, New South Wales and Tasmania; owners of firearms were required to be licensed from 1988, and licences were introduced for long guns in Tasmania in 1991.

In 1996 all states subscribed to the National Firearms Agreement (NFA), which was instituted through the Australian Police Ministers Council (APMC) with the cooperation of all states. The Australian state and territory laws regulating weapons are:[2]

At the federal level, the importation of firearms is subject to the restrictions in Regulation 4F and Schedule 6 of the Customs (Prohibited Goods) Regulations 1956 (Cth).

Firearms categories

The National Firearm Agreement defines categories of firearms, with different levels of control for each, as follows:.

Certain antique firearms (generally muzzle loading black powder flintlock firearms manufactured before 1 January 1901) can in some states be legally held without a licence.[5] In other states they are subject to the same requirements as modern firearms.[6] All single-shot muzzleloading firearms manufactured before 1 January 1901 are considered antique firearms. Four states require licences for antique percussion revolvers and cartridge repeating firearms, but in Queensland and Victoria a person may possess such a firearm without a licence, so long as the firearm is registered (percussion revolvers require a licence in Victoria).

History

European settlement to 19th century

Firearms were introduced to Australia with European settlement on 26 January 1788, though other seafarers that visited Australia before settlement also carried firearms. The colony of New South Wales was initially a penal settlement, with the military garrison being armed. Firearms were also used for hunting, protection of persons and crops, in crime and fighting crime, and in many military engagements. From the landing of the First Fleet there was conflict with Aborigines over game, access to fenced land, and spearing of livestock. Firearms were used to protect explorers and settlers from Aboriginal attack. A number of punitive raids and massacres of Aboriginals were carried out in a series of local conflicts. The history of these conflicts is contentious (see History wars).

From the beginning there were controls on firearms. The firearms issued to convicts (for meat hunting) and settlers (for hunting and protection) were stolen and misused, and this resulted in more controls. In January 1796, David Collins wrote that "several attempts had been made to ascertain the number of arms in the possession of individuals, as many were feared to be in the hands of those who committed depredations; the crown recalled between two and three hundred stands of arms, but not 50 stands were accounted for".[7]

Australian colonists also used firearms in conflict with bushrangers; in duels, the last in 1854; in armed rebellions, such as the Castle Hill convict rebellion in 1804 and the 1854 Eureka Stockade. The Eureka Stockade arose as a result of Government and police abuses against gold miners. A large force of police and soldiers assaulted a stockade set up by miners. Six soldiers and twenty-two miners were killed.

From the 1850s to the 1950s, Australians developed a strong volunteer tradition in preparing defence against possible invaders, and sent volunteer expeditionary forces to most British wars.[8]

20th century

Gun laws were the responsibility of each colony and, since Federation in 1901, of each state. The Commonwealth does not have constitutional authority over firearms, but it has jurisdiction over customs and defence matters. Federally the external affairs powers can be used to enforce internal control over matters agreed in external treaties.

In New South Wales, handguns were effectively banned after World War II but the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games sparked a new interest in the sport of pistol shooting and laws were changed to allow the sport to develop.

State gun laws varied widely. Western Australia and the Northern Territory had restrictions even on sporting rifles and shotguns, but in Queensland and Tasmania they could be bought without restrictions.

Fully automatic guns were banned on most of the Australian mainland from the 1930s, but remained legal in Tasmania until 1996.

In the 1940s and 1950s, Cold War concerns about ex-military rifles falling into the hands of communist radicals led New South Wales to place restrictions on the legal ownership of rifles of a military calibre (see: .303/25) while members of rifle clubs and military rifle clubs could own ex-military rifles. In the 1970s these restrictions were relaxed in New South Wales and military style rifles (both bolt-action and semi-automatic) once again became widely available, except in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.

Gun control activism in Australia became organised with the formation in 1981 of the "Committee to Control Gun Misuse" in Victoria, later to become Gun Control Australia.

1984–1996 multiple killings

From 1984 to 1996, multiple killings aroused public concern. The 1984 Milperra massacre was a major incident in a series of conflicts between various 'outlaw motorcycle gangs'. In 1987, the Hoddle Street massacre and the Queen Street massacre took place in Melbourne. In response, several states required the registration of all guns, and restricted the availability of self-loading rifles and shotguns. In the Strathfield massacre in New South Wales, 1991, two were killed with a knife, and five more with a firearm. Tasmania passed a law in 1991 for firearm purchasers to obtain a licence, though enforcement was light. Firearm laws in Tasmania and Queensland remained relatively relaxed for longarms.

Shooting massacres in Australia and other English-speaking countries often occurred close together in time. Forensic psychiatrists attribute this to copycat behaviour,[9][10] which is in many cases triggered by sensational media treatment.[11][12] Mass murderers study media reports and imitate the actions and equipment that are sensationalised in them.[13]

Port Arthur massacre and its consequences

The Port Arthur massacre in 1996 transformed gun control legislation in Australia. 35 people were killed and 23 wounded when the gunman opened fire on shop owners and tourists with two semi-automatic rifles. This mass killing horrified the Australian public.

The massacre occurred six weeks after the Dunblane massacre in Scotland.[9]

The Port Arthur perpetrator said he bought his firearms from a gun dealer without holding the required firearms licence.[14]

Prime Minister John Howard took the gun law proposals developed from the report of the 1988 National Committee on Violence[15] and convinced the states to adopt them under a National Firearms Agreement. This was necessary because the Australian Constitution does not give the Commonwealth power to enact gun laws. The proposals included a ban on all semi-automatic rifles and all semi-automatic and pump-action shotguns, and a tightly restrictive system of licensing and ownership controls.

The Howard Government held a series of public meetings to explain the proposed changes. In the first meeting, Howard wore a bullet-resistant vest, which was visible under his jacket. Many shooters were critical of this.[16][17][18] Some gun enthusiasts applied to join the Liberal Party in an attempt to influence the government, but the party barred them from membership.[19][20] A court action by 500 shooters seeking admission to membership eventually failed in the Supreme Court of South Australia.[21]

The Australian Constitution requires just compensation be given for property taken over, so the federal government introduced the Medicare Levy Amendment Act 1996 to raise the predicted cost of A$500 million through a one-off increase in the Medicare levy. The gun buy-back scheme started on 1 October 1996 and concluded on 30 September 1997.[22] The government bought back and destroyed over 1 million firearms.[23]

Following the National Agreement on Firearms, the number of deaths by firearms in Australia, initially declined slowly. Overall homicides immediately after, saw a decrease of less than one per 100,000 persons. Over the medium term homicide by firearm dropped from 1/200,000 to 1/670,000.[24]

Between 2010-2014, gun related homicides across all of Australia had dropped to 30-40 per year. Firearms in 2014 were used in less than 15% of homicides, less than 0.1% of sexual assaults, less than 6% of kidnapping/abductions and 8% of robberies.[25]

Since the 1996 legislation the risk of dying by gunshots was reduced by 50% in the following years and stayed on that lower level since then. The rate of gun related suicide was greatly reduced as well.[23] In 2010, a study reported a 59% decrease in firearm homicides in Australia between 1995 and 2006 (0.37 per 100,000 people in 1995 to 0.15 per 100,000 people in 2006). They also reported that the non-firearm homicides fell by the same rate. The decreasing rate for homicide with a firearm was a continuation of a pre-existing decline prior to the 1996 reforms, and several analyses of these trends have been conducted and claimed that the reforms have had a statistically insignificant effect on homicide rates with a firearm .[26]

Suicides by firearm were already declining; however they fell significantly after controls, dropping around 50% in two years.[27] Overall suicide rates remained steady until a slight drop in 2003, followed by stable rates since then.[24]

Monash University shootings

In October 2002, a commerce student killed two fellow students at Monash University in Victoria with pistols he had acquired as a member of a shooting club. The gunman, Huan Yun Xiang, was acquitted of crimes related to the shootings due to mental impairment but ordered to be detained in Thomas Embling Hospital, a high-security hospital for up to 25 years.[28]

As in 1996, the federal government urged state governments to review handgun laws, and amended legislation was adopted in all states and territories. Changes included a 10-round magazine capacity limit, a calibre limit of not more than .38 inches (since expanded under certain criteria) (9.65 mm), a barrel length limit of not less than 120 mm (4.72 inches) for semi-automatic pistols and 100 mm (3.94 inches) for revolvers, and even stricter probation and attendance requirements for sporting target shooters. Whilst handguns for sporting shooters are nominally restricted to .38 inches as a maximum calibre, it is possible to obtain an endorsement allowing calibres up to .45 inches (11.43 mm) to be used for metallic silhouette or Single Action Shooting matches. These new laws were opposed not only by sporting shooters groups but also by gun control supporters, who saw it as paying for shooters to upgrade to new guns.

In the state of Victoria, figures show Victorians have handed in 18,814 guns to be destroyed — easily exceeding the Victorian Government's prediction that 10,000 guns would be given up. 15,184 replacement pistols were imported. The buyback is a joint initiative by the federal and state governments. Victorians have handed in more guns than shooters in any other state, 40% of the 46,072 weapons collected nationwide. Shooters have also handed in 228,063 gun parts. Almost $60 million compensation has been paid nationwide.[29]

One government policy was to compensate shooters for giving up the sport. Approximately 25% of pistol shooters took this offer, and relinquished their licences and their right to own pistols for sport for five years; in Victoria it is estimated 1/3 of people surrendering firearms took this option.[29]

Gun amnesties

In New South Wales there have been three gun amnesties in 2001, 2003 and 2009. 63,000 handguns were handed in during the first two amnesties and over 4,323 handguns were handed in during the third amnesty. During the third amnesty 21,615 firearm registrations were received by the Firearms Registry. The surrendered firearms were all destroyed.[30]

2014 Sydney hostage crisis

On 15–16 December 2014, a lone gunman, Man Haron Monis, held hostage 17 customers and employees of a Lindt chocolate café located at Martin Place in Sydney, Australia. The perpetrator was on bail at the time and had previously been convicted of a range of offences.[31] Two of the hostages and the perpetrator died.

In August 2015, Mike Baird and Troy Grant announced a tightening of laws on bail and illegal firearms, creating a new offence for the possession of a stolen firearm, with a maximum of 14 years imprisonment and establishing an Illegal Firearms Investigation and Reward Scheme. This legislative change also introduced measures to reduce illegal firearms in NSW including a ban on the possession of digital blueprints that enable firearms to be manufactured using 3D printers and milling machines for anyone without an appropriate licence.[32]

After the Lindt cafe deaths, Senator David Leyonhjelm labelled Australia a country of “disarmed victims”.[33]

Measuring the effects of firearms laws in Australia

Historically, Australia has had relatively low levels of violent crime. Overall levels of homicide and suicide have been in decline for several decades, while the proportion of these crimes that involved firearms has consistently declined since the early 1980s. Between 1991 and 2001, the number of firearm-related deaths in Australia declined 47%.[34] According to a 2011 report from the Australian government, "...the number of victims of homicide has been in decline since 1996". There were 354 victims in 1996, but only 260 victims in 2010, a decrease of 27%. Of those 260 victims however, only 36 were homicides involving a firearm. Also, "The proportion of homicide victims killed by offenders using firearms in 2009–10 represented a decrease of 18 percentage points from the peak of 31% in 1995–96 (the year in which the Port Arthur massacre occurred with the death of 35 people, which subsequently led to the introduction of stringent firearms legislation).". In 2014, only 35 people were victims of firearms homicide (1 in 685000 population),[35] compared to 98 people in 1996 [36] (1 in 186000 population). A 3.7 fold decrease in firearm homicide rates since controls were introduced.

Suicide deaths using firearms more than halved over the ten years, from 389 deaths in 1995, to 147 deaths in 2005.[37] to 7% of all suicides in 2005.[38]

The number of guns stolen has fallen from an average 4,195 per year from 1994 to 2000 to 1,526 in 2006–2007. Long guns are more often stolen opportunistically in home burglaries, but few homes have handguns and a substantial proportion of stolen handguns are taken from security firms and other businesses; only a tiny proportion, 0.06% of licensed firearms, are stolen in a given year. Only a small proportion of those firearms are recovered. Approximately 3% of these stolen weapons are later connected to an actual crime or found in the possession of a person charged with a serious offence.[39]

Contention over effects of the laws

Research

In 1997, the Prime Minister appointed the Australian Institute of Criminology to monitor the effects of the gun buyback. The institute has published a number of papers reporting trends and statistics around gun ownership and gun crime.[40][41]

Many studies have followed, providing varying results stemming from different methodologies and areas of focus. However, Harvard University summarized the research in 2011 and concluded, “it would have been difficult to imagine more compelling future evidence of a beneficial effect.” [42]

Some researchers have found a significant change in the rate of firearm suicides after the legislative changes. For example, Ozanne-Smith et al. (2004)[43] in the journal Injury Prevention found a reduction in firearm suicides in Victoria, however this study did not consider non-firearm suicide rates. Others have argued that alternative methods of suicide have been substituted. De Leo, Dwyer, Firman & Neulinger,[44] studied suicide methods in men from 1979 to 1998 and found a rise in hanging suicides that started slightly before the fall in gun suicides. As hanging suicides rose at about the same rate as gun suicides fell, it is possible that there was some substitution of suicide methods. It has been noted that drawing strong conclusions about possible impacts of gun laws on suicides is challenging, because a number of suicide prevention programs were implemented from the mid-1990s onwards, and non-firearm suicides also began falling.[45]

Suicide reduction from firearm regulation is disputed by Richard Harding in his book “Firearms and Violence in Australian Life”[46] where, after reviewing Australian statistics, he said that “whatever arguments might be made for the limitation or regulation of the private ownership of firearms, suicide patterns do not constitute one of them” Harding quoted international analysis by Newton and Zimring[47] of twenty developed countries which concluded at page 36 of their report; “cultural factors appear to affect suicide rates far more than the availability and use of firearms. Thus, suicide rates would not seem to be readily affected by making firearms less available."

In 2005 the head of the New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, Don Weatherburn,[48] said that the level of legal gun ownership in NSW increased in recent years, and that the 1996 legislation had little to no effect on violence. Professor Simon Chapman, former coconvenor of the Coalition for Gun Control, complained that his words "will henceforth be cited by every gun-lusting lobby group throughout the world in their perverse efforts to stall reforms that could save thousands of lives".[49] Weatherburn responded, "The fact is that the introduction of those laws did not result in any acceleration of the downward trend in gun homicide. They may have reduced the risk of mass shootings but we cannot be sure because no one has done the rigorous statistical work required to verify this possibility. It is always unpleasant to acknowledge facts that are inconsistent with your own point of view. But I thought that was what distinguished science from popular prejudice."[50]

In 2006, the lack of a measurable effect from the 1996 firearms legislation was reported in the British Journal of Criminology. Using ARIMA analysis, Dr Jeanine Baker and Dr Samara McPhedran, researchers with the International Coalition for Women in Shooting and Hunting (WiSH), found little evidence for an impact of the laws on homicide, but did for suicide.[51]

Weatherburn described the Baker and McPhedran article as "reputable" and "well-conducted" but also stated that "it would be wrong to infer from the study that it does not matter how many guns there are in the community." Simon Chapman stated this study ignored the Mass Shootings issue such as Port Arthur Massacre.[52] Weatherburn noted the importance of actively policing illegal firearm trafficking and argued that there was little evidence that the new laws had helped in this regard.[53]

A study coauthored by Simon Chapman concluded: Australia’s 1996 gun law reforms were followed by more than a decade free of fatal mass shootings, and accelerated declines in firearm deaths, particularly suicides. Total homicide rates followed the same pattern. Removing large numbers of rapid-firing firearms from civilians may be an effective way of reducing mass shootings, firearm homicides and firearm suicides.[54]

Subsequently, a study by McPhedran and Baker compared the incidence of mass shootings in Australia and New Zealand. Data were standardised to a rate per 100,000 people, to control for differences in population size between the countries and mass shootings before and after 1996/1997 were compared between countries. That study found that in the period 1980–1996, both countries experienced mass shootings. The rate did not differ significantly between countries. Since 1996-1997, neither country has experienced a mass shooting event despite the continued availability of semi-automatic longarms in New Zealand. The authors conclude that "the hypothesis that Australia's prohibition of certain types of firearms explains the absence of mass shootings in that country since 1996 does not appear to be supported... if civilian access to certain types of firearms explained the occurrence of mass shootings in Australia (and conversely, if prohibiting such firearms explains the absence of mass shootings), then New Zealand (a country that still allows the ownership of such firearms) would have continued to experience mass shooting events."[55]

In 2009 a paper from the Australian Institute for Suicide Research and Prevention at Griffith University concluded:

The implemented restrictions may not be responsible for the observed reductions in firearms suicide. Data suggest that a change in social and cultural attitudes could have contributed to the shift in method preference.[56]

A 2008 study on the effects of the firearm buybacks by Wang-Sheng Lee and Sandy Suardi of The Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research at the University of Melbourne studied the data and concluded, "Despite the fact that several researchers using the same data have examined the impact of the NFA on firearm deaths, a consensus does not appear to have been reached. In this paper, we re-analyze the same data on firearm deaths used in previous research, using tests for unknown structural breaks as a means to identifying impacts of the NFA. The results of these tests suggest that the NFA did not have any large effects on reducing firearm homicide or suicide rates."[57]

A 2010 study claimed, on the basis of modelled statistical estimates, that the gun buyback scheme cut firearm suicides by 74%. The study,[58] by Christine Neill and Andrew Leigh, found no evidence of substitution of method of suicide in any state. The estimated effect on firearm homicides was of similar magnitude but less precise.

Most recently, McPhedran and Baker found there was little evidence for any impacts of the gun laws on firearm suicide among people under 35 years of age, and suggest that the significant financial expenditure associated with Australia's firearms method restriction measures may not have had any impact on youth suicide.[59]

A 2013 report by the Australian Crime Commission said a conservative estimate was that there were 250,000 longarms and 10,000 handguns in the nation's illicit firearms market. The number of guns imported to Australia legally has also risen, including a 24% increase during the past six years in the number of registered handguns in NSW, some of them diverted to the black market via theft or corrupt dealers and owners.[60] A 2014 report stated that approximately "260,000 guns are on the Australian 'grey' or black markets", and discussed the potential problem of people using 3D printers to create guns. NSW and Victorian police obtained plans to create 3D printed guns and tested to see if they could fire, but the guns exploded during testing.[61]

In a 2013 report Lemieux, Tim Prenzler and Samantha Bricknel compared mass shootings between America and Australia and found that no mass shootings had happened in Australia since 1996, but that there were reductions in America that were evident during the 1994-2004 Federal Assault Weapon Ban, with increases subsequently.[62]

A 2016 study using data from the Australian National Injury Surveillance Unit reported that there were no mass firearm killings following the 1996 gun law reforms through May 2016. They also reported a more rapid decline in firearm deaths between 1997 and 2013 compared with between 1979 and 1997, but there was also a decline in total nonfirearm suicide and homicide deaths of a greater magnitude. Because of this, the investigators concluded it was not possible to conclude with any certainty that the change in firearm deaths could be attributed to the gun law reforms.[63]

Statements by organisations

The American National Rifle Association claimed in 2000 that violent crimes had increased in Australia since the introduction of new laws. The federal Attorney General Daryl Williams accused the NRA of falsifying government statistics and urged the NRA to "remove any reference to Australia" from its website.[64]

CLASS (The Coalition of Law-Abiding Sporting Shooters) in 2003 stated that no benefit-cost analysis of the buyback had been carried out and that scientific debate was politicised and ignored benefits of shooting and costs forced on legitimate owners.[65]

The Sporting Shooters Association of Australia states that there is no evidence that gun control restrictions in 1987, 1996 and 2002 had any impact on the already established trends.[66][67]

Responding to Neill and Leigh, The Sporting Shooters Association of Australia replied [68] that suicide by firearm has been decreasing steadily since the mid-1980s, but suicide by other methods such as hanging has not followed the same trend; that important assumptions of the work were not mentioned in media reports; that 93% of people replaced their seized firearms with at least one, if not more, to replace their loss; and recommended the work of Lee and Suardi, who reviewed almost 90 years of ABS data when making their conclusions, while Leigh and Neill chose to analyse only two five-year periods on either side of the 1996 buy-back.

Major players in gun politics in Australia

Federal government

Until 1996, the federal government had little role in firearms law. Following the Port Arthur massacre, the Howard Government (1996–2007), with strong media and public support, introduced uniform gun laws with the cooperation of all the states, brought about through threats to Commonwealth funding arrangements. The then Prime Minister John Howard frequently referred to the USA to explain his opposition to civilian firearms ownership and use in Australia, stating that he did not want Australia to go "down the American path".[69][70][71] In one interview on Sydney radio station 2GB he said, "We will find any means we can to further restrict them because I hate guns... ordinary citizens should not have weapons. We do not want the American disease imported into Australia."[72]

In 1995 Howard as opposition leader expressed a desire to introduce restrictive gun laws.[73]

In Howard's autobiography Lazarus Rising: A Personal and Political Autobiography, Howard expressed his support for the anti-gun cause and his desire to introduce restrictive gun laws long before he became prime minister. In a television interview shortly before the 10th anniversary of the Port Arthur massacre, he reaffirmed his stance: "I did not want Australia to go down the American path. There are some things about America I admire and there are some things I don't. And one of the things I don't admire about America is their... slavish love of guns. They're evil". During the same television interview, Howard also stated that he saw the outpouring of grief in the aftermath of the Port Arthur massacre as "an opportunity to grab the moment and think about a fundamental change to gun laws in this country".[74]

Howard had strong public support in the immediate aftermath of the Port Arthur massacre, especially from those people who regularly voted against the Liberal Party. The Nationals had strong support from rural voters, some of whom were opposed to the government's moves towards gun control.

The National Firearms Agreement continues to have support from both Labor and Coalition Federal Governments.[75][76]

Gun control organisations

Active lobbying in Australia for gun control has been conducted mainly by Gun Control Australia (GCA). the National Coalition for Gun Control (NCGC) and the Australian Greens Party. The GCA and NCGC merged in July 2012.

The NCGC had a high profile in the public debate up to and immediately after the Port Arthur Massacre. Rebecca Peters, Roland Browne, Simon Chapman and Reverend Tim Costello[77] appeared in media reports and authored articles to support their aims.[78] In the aftermath of Port Arthur a number of public health bodies added their support to the NCGC.

In 1996 the NCGC received the Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission's Community Human Rights award.[79]

In 2003 Samantha Lee as chair of the NCGC was financed by a Churchill Fellowship to publish a paper[80] arguing that current handgun legislation is too loose, that police officers who are shooters have a conflict of interest, and that licensed private firearm ownership per se presents a threat to women and children.[81] In a late 2005 press release, Roland Browne as co-chair of the NCGC, advocated further restrictions on handguns.[82][83]

Gun Control Australia has published a number of booklets, maintains a website, and occasionally is quoted in the media.

In July 2012, GCA announced a merger with the National Coalition for Gun Control, and that Samantha Lee of NSW and Roland Browne of Tasmania would join President John Crook and Vice-President Rhonda Collins as spokespersons.

Pro-gun organisations

Shooting clubs have existed in Australia since the mid-19th century. They are mainly concerned with protecting the viability of hunting, collecting and target shooting sports, rather than keeping firearms for self-defence as in the USA. Australian shooters regard their sport as under permanent threat from increasingly restrictive legislation. They argue that they have been made scapegoats by politicians, the media, and anti-gun activists for the acts of criminals who generally use illegal firearms. Their researchers have found scant evidence that increasing restrictions have improved public safety, despite the high costs and severe regulatory barriers imposed on shooters in Australia.[84][85]

The largest organisation of firearms owners is the Sporting Shooters Association of Australia (SSAA) was established in 1948, and had 175,000 members as at 2015.[86] SSAA state branches lobby on local issues, while SSAA National addresses federal legislation and international issues. SSAA National has non-government organisation (NGO) status at the United Nations and is a founding member of The World Forum on the Future of Sport Shooting Activities (WFSA), which also has NGO status. SSAA National has a number of people working in research and lobbying roles. In 2008, they appointed journalist and media manager Tim Bannister as federal parliamentary lobbyist.[87]

For handguns, one major organisation in Australia is Pistol Australia.[88]

There are several other national bodies, such as Field and Game Australia, the National Rifle Association of Australia, the International Practical Shooting Confederation (IPSC), the Australian Clay Target Association and Target Rifle Australia. These national bodies with their state counterparts concentrate on a range of sporting and political issues ranging from Olympic type competition through to conservation activities.

The Combined Firearms Council of Victoria was created in late 2002 and has been very active in the debate in Victoria. The CFCV ran advertisements in the 2002 Victorian state election and made voting recommendations at the 2002 and 2006 Victorian state elections, supporting specific candidates rather than political parties. Four of the six ALP MPs elevated to the front bench after the 2002 Victorian election were supported by the CFCV. A Firearms Consultative Committee, established in 2005 in Victoria, led to several changes to firearms legislation that benefited handgun users and gun collectors.

The Shooters and Fishers Party is a political party that started in New South Wales claims to be "the voice of hunters, shooters, fishers, rural and regional Australia and independent thinking Australians everywhere. Advocating for the politically incorrect, a voice of reason, science and conservation".[89] Its founder, John Tingle, served as an elected member of the upper house of New South Wales parliament, the Legislative Council, from 1995 until he retired in late 2006. The party currently holds two seats in the NSW Legislative Council.[90] In 2013 a Western Australian branch was formed and stood candidates in the state elections, winning a seat in the WA Legislative Council.[91] Shooters and Fishers candidates won two upper house seats in the 2014 Victorian state election.

Other parties

The One Nation party in 1997–98 briefly gained national prominence and had strong support from shooters. A number of minor political parties such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Australia (who are currently represented by David Leyonhjelm in the Australian Senate), Outdoor Recreation Party, Country Alliance and Katter's Australian Party (represented by Bob Katter in the House of Representatives)[92] have pro-shooter/pro-firearm platforms.

References

  1. ↑ Lawful reasons for having a firearm licence
  2. 1 2 Library of Congress: Firearms-Control Legislation and Policy: Australia
  3. ↑ http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/services/firearms
  4. ↑ http://www.ipsc.org.au/
  5. ↑ In ACT: "Firearms Act 1996 (ACT) s 6(2)(a)".; In NSW: "Firearms Act 1996 (NSW) s 6A(1)".; In Qld: "Weapons Act 1990 (Qld) s 5, Sch 2".; In SA: for definition of 'antique firearm', see "Firearms Act 1977 (SA) s 5"., for exemption, see: "Firearms Regulations 2008 (SA) reg 6".
  6. ↑ In Vic: definition of an 'antique firearm', see "Firearms Act 1996 (Vic) s 3(1)"., for licensing, see "Firearms Act 1996 (Vic) ss 22–23".; In Tas: "Firearms Act 1996 (Tas) s 28(1)".; In WA: "Firearms Act 1977 (WA) s 16(1)(b)".
  7. ↑ Christopher Halls 1974, Guns in Australia, Paul Hamlyn Pty Ltd Dee Why NSW
  8. ↑ De LAAT, Frans Karel (2008) The History of the Navy Cadet Movement in Australia. p.14
  9. 1 2 Mullen, Paul quoted in Hannon K 1997, "Copycats to Blame for Massacres Says Expert", Courier Mail, 4/3/1997
  10. ↑ Cantor, Mullen; Alpers (2000). "Mass homicide: the civil massacre". J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 28 (1): 55–63.
  11. ↑ Phillips, D. P. (1980). "Airplane accidents, murder, and the mass media: Towards a theory of imitation and suggestion". Social Forces. 58: 1001–1024. doi:10.1093/sf/58.4.1001.
  12. ↑ Cialdini, Robert 2001. Influence: Science and Practice 4th Ed. Allyn and Bacon, pp. 121–130.
  13. ↑ Cramer, C 1993. Ethical problems of mass murder coverage in the mass media. Journal of Mass Media Ethics 9.
  14. ↑ "A Transcript of the Police Interview With Martin Bryant". Love for Life.
  15. ↑ http://aic.gov.au/publications/proceedings/12/chappell.pdf
  16. ↑ Guerrera, Orietta (28 April 2006). "Anger lingers among those who lost their firearms". The Age. Melbourne.
  17. ↑ Nicholson (17 June 1996). "'E's carrying on like some kind of Nazi". The Australian.
  18. ↑ Dore, Christopher (6–27 May 1997). "The Smoking Guns Buyback". The Weekend Australian.
  19. ↑ Reardon, Dave (10 June 1996). "Progun Liberals Recruit for Party". The West Australian.
  20. ↑ Atkins, Dennis (26 June 1996). "Libs on Alert for Pro-Gun Infiltration". The Brisbane Courier Mail.
  21. ↑ "Shooter Rejected". Border Mail – Albury. 22 February 1997.
  22. ↑ http://www.anao.gov.au/uploads/documents/1997-98_Audit_Report_25.pdf
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  27. ↑ http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/261-280/tandi269.html
  28. ↑ Topsfield, Jewel (18 June 2004). "Monash gunman not guilty". Fairfax Media. The Age. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
  29. 1 2 Hudson, Phillip (1 February 2004). "State's gun owners reap $21m". The Age.
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  31. ↑ "Sydney siege: Tony Abbott launches urgent joint inquiry". The Australian. 17 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  32. ↑ Coultan, Mark (28 August 2015). "New firearms restrictions and bail laws for NSW after Martin Place siege". NSW Deputy Premier Troy Grant said that penalties for firearm offences will be increased, with a new offence of possession of a stolen firearm, which will carry a maximum penalty of 14 years jail. There will also be a ban on possessing blueprints for firearms capable of being used by 3D printers, as well as unlicensed milling machines. News Corp. The Australian. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
  33. ↑ "Disarmed victims: Senator calls for gun debate after Sydney siege". News. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
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  38. ↑ Australian Bureau of Statistics (14 March 2007). "3309 Suicides Australia 2005" (PDF).
  39. ↑ Bricknell, S (2008). Firearm theft in Australia 2006–07. Australian Institute of Criminology. ISBN 978-1-921532-05-4. ISSN 1445-7261.
  40. ↑ Mouzos, Jenny (2000). Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice No. 151: The licensing and registration status of firearms used in homicide (PDF). Australian Institute of Criminology. ISBN 0-642-24162-7. ISSN 0817-8542.
  41. ↑ Mouzos, Jenny (2002). Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice No. 230: Firearms theft in Australia (PDF). Australian Institute of Criminology. ISBN 0-642-24265-8. ISSN 0817-8542.
  42. ↑ "Australian Gun Buyback" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2013.
  43. ↑ Ozanne-Smith, J; K Ashby; S Newstead; V Z Stathakis; A Clapperton. "Firearm related deaths: the impact of regulatory reform". Prevention 2004;10:280–286.
  44. ↑ De Leo, Diego; Dwyer, Jonathan; Firman, David; Neulinger, Kerryn (2003-6). "Trends in hanging and firearm suicide rates in Australia: Substitution of method". Suicide & Life – Threatening Behavior. 33 (2): 151–164. doi:10.1521/suli.33.2.151.22775. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  45. ↑ Baker, Jeanine; McPhedran, Samara (18 October 2006). "Gun Laws and Sudden Death: Did the Australian Firearms Legislation of 1996 Make a Difference?". British Journal of Criminology. 47 (3): 455–469. doi:10.1093/bjc/azl084.
  46. ↑ Harding, Richard (1981). Firearms and Violence in Australian Life. Perth: University of Western Australia Press. p. 119. ISBN 0 85564 190 8.
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  49. ↑ Chapman, Simon "Loaded words pose a danger to gun reform", The Sydney Morning Herald, 31 October 2005. Accessed 10 August 2010
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  52. ↑ Interview with Damien Carrick, The Law Report, ABC Radio National, 31 October 2006
  53. ↑ Don Weatherburn (16 October 2006). "Study No Excuse to shoot down the law". The Sydney Morning Herald. John Fairfax Holdings. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
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  56. ↑ Klieve, Helen; Barnes, Michael; DeLeo, Diego (2009). "Controlling firearms use in Australia: has the 1996 gun law reform produced the decrease in rates of suicide with this method?". Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 44 (4): 285–292. doi:10.1007/s00127-008-0435-9. PMID 18839044.
  57. ↑ Lee, Wang-Sheng; Suardi, Sandy (2010). "The Australian Firearms Buyback and Its Effect on Gun Deaths". Contemporary Economic Policy. 28 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7287.2009.00165.x.
  58. ↑ Leigh, Andrew; Neill, Christine (2010). "Do Gun Buybacks Save Lives? Evidence from Panel Data". Am Law Econ Rev. 12 (2): 462–508. doi:10.1093/aler/ahq013.
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  61. ↑ http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/oct/13/australia-has-250000-illegal-firearms-guns
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  64. ↑ "Australia shoots back at NRA". WorldNetDaily.com. 24 March 2000.
  65. ↑ CLASS (2003). "Science in the Service of Politics".
  66. ↑ Trouble in Paradise Archived 27 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine., SSAA presentation at Goroka Gun Summit, 2005
  67. ↑ The impact of gun-control laws called into question Archived 23 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine., SSAA media release, November 2004
  68. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 28 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  69. ↑ Los Angeles Times Special Report Archived 25 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Australia's Answer to Carnage: a Strict Law, Jeff Brazil and Steve Berry, 27 August 1997.
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  71. ↑ John Howard's address to the Council of Small Business Organisations of Australia, Canberra, 28 May 2002.
  72. ↑ "TRANSCRIPT OF THE PRIME MINISTER THE HON JOHN HOWARD MP INTERVIEW WITH PHILIP CLARK, RADIO 2GB". That is one of the difficulties and we will find any means we can to further restrict them because I hate guns. I don';t think people should have guns unless they';re police or in the military or in the security industry. There is no earthly reason for people to have…ordinary citizens should not have weapons. We do not want the American disease imported into Australia. Australian Government. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 17 April 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
  73. ↑ "The Role of Government: John Howard 1995 Headland Speech". Let me say that in the ebbing and flowing debate on the availability of weapons, I am firmly on the side of those who believe that it would be a cardinal tragedy if Australia did not learn the bitter lessons of the United States regarding guns. I have no doubt that the horrific homicide level in the United States is directly related to the plentiful supply of guns. How else does one explain the simple fact that in the United States the murder rate is 10 per 100,000, against one per 100,000 in England and Wales and 2.0 in Australia. Whilst making proper allowance for legitimate sporting and recreational activities and the proper needs of our rural community, every effort should be made to limit the carrying of guns in Australia. AUSTRALIANPOLITICS.COM. 6 June 1995. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
  74. ↑ "Interview with Karl Stefanovic Today Show, Channel Nine". Oh I recall that very vividly. I recall the extraordinary outpouring of amazement and grief in the country and I knew out of that there was an opportunity to grab the moment and to bring about a fundamental change in gun laws in this country. I did not want Australia to go down the American path. There are some things about America I admire, there are some things I don't and one of the things I don't admire about America is an almost drooling, slavish love of guns. I think they're evil. Australian Government. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 1 March 2006. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
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  76. ↑ SSAA National (August 2010). "Australian Labor Party statement".
  77. ↑ Hudson, Phillip (25 October 2002). "Handgun curbs on the way". Melbourne: The Age.
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