History of Detroit

Ste. Anne de Détroit, founded in 1701 is the second oldest continuously operating Roman Catholic parish in the United States. The present Gothic Revival cathedral styled church was completed in 1887 and serves a largely Hispanic community.^[1][2]

The city of Detroit, the largest city in the state of Michigan, settled in 1701, is the first European settlement above tidewater in North America.^[3] Developing from a small sleepy New France fur trading post to a world-class industrial powerhouse and the fourth largest American city by the mid 20th century. In colonial times, with the city located on the opposite end of Lake Erie from the first 17th century North American colonies, it was first settled from the French Kingdom's New Orleans colony vice Montreal (founded 93 years earlier) after the Beaver Wars left the southern shores of Lakes Erie and Huron in the hands of the ever-hostile and powerful League of the Iroquois.^{[lower-alpha 1]} After a devastating fire in 1805, Augustus B. Woodward devised a street plan similar to Pierre Charles L'Enfant's design for Washington, D.C. Detroit's monumental avenues and traffic circles fan out in radial fashion from Campus Martius Park in the heart of the city, which facilitates traffic patterns along the city's tree-lined boulevards and parks.^[5] Main thoroughfares radiate outward from the city center like spokes in a wheel.

The region grew initially based on the lucrative inland and Great Lakes connected fur trade, in which numerous Native American people had important roles. The Crown's administration of New France offered free land to colonists to attract families to the region of Detroit and the population grew steadily, but slower than English private venture funded colonies, for there was a much smaller European population base making babies and attracting relatives. During the French and Indian War (1756-1763), the French reinforced and improved Fort Detroit (1701) along the Detroit River between 1758–1760, and it became the focus of several British and American attacks.

It was finally surrendered to the British on November 29, 1760 and control of the area was formally transferred to the United Kingdom by the Treaty of Paris (1763). The Royal Governor of the now newly renamed British Province of Quebec immediately adopted the policy of offering free land to new settlers in order to secure the region with an offsetting population of British-American settlers—while other post-war British policies were attempting to arrest southern trans-Appalachians settling by making such illegal—so it soon zoomed to a total population of 800 in 1765, when it was the largest city between Montreal and New Orleans, both also settlements by the French.^[6] Only a decade later, the population of Detroit was 1,400 (1773). In 1778 in a census during the American Revolution, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec.^[7]

Despite official policy and the threat of Amerindian adverse acts, after 1773 a steady but growing trickle of settlers snuck families across the barrier range, or through lower New York State into the Ohio Country—gradually spreading across present-day Ohio along the south shore of Lake Erie and around the bottom of Lake Huron. After the 1778 Sullivan Expedition broke the power of the Iroquois, the New York corridor joined the gaps of the Allegheny, Cumberland Narrows and Cumberland Gap as mountain passes enabling settlers to pour west into the mid-west, even as the American Revolution wound down. After the peace, an flood of settlers poured west, and Detroit reaped its share of population, established itself as a gateway to other traffic to the west and other Great Lakes, and for a time outshone all other cities west of the mountains, save for New Orleans.

During the 19th century, Detroit grew into a thriving hub of commerce and industry, and the city spread along Jefferson Avenue, with multiple manufacturing firms taking advantage of the transportation resources afforded by the river and a parallel rail line. In the late 19th century several Gilded Age mansions were built just east of Detroit's current downtown. Detroit was referred to by some as the Paris of the West for its architecture, and for Washington Boulevard, recently electrified by Thomas Edison.^[1] Throughout the 20th century various skyscrapers were built centered on Detroit's downtown.

Following World War II, the auto industry boomed and the area witnessed suburban expansion. The Detroit metropolitan area has emerged as one of the largest in the United States. Immigrants and migrants have contributed significantly to Detroit's economy and culture. In the 1990s and the new millennium, the city has experienced increased revitalization. Many areas of the city are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and include National Historic Landmarks. The city with its population migration to the suburbs has had to adjust its role in the midst of a much larger metropolitan area in the 21st century.

Beginnings

Chauncey Hurlbut Memorial Gate (1894) - restored in 2007. Waterworks Park.

The first recorded mention of the site was in 1670s, when French missionaries found a stone idol venerated by the Indians there and destroyed it with an axe. Early settlers planted twelve missionary pear trees "named for the twelve Apostles" on the grounds of what is now Waterworks Park.^[8]

French officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Detroit in 1701

The Indians lost at the Siege of Fort Detroit during Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763.

The American surrender, following the British Siege of Detroit during the War of 1812.

The city name comes from the Detroit River (French: le détroit du Lac Érie), meaning the strait of Lake Erie, linking Lake Huron and Lake Erie; in the historical context, the strait included Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River.^[9] The sieur de Cadillac in 1698 proposed to his government in Paris that Detroit be established as a shelter for displaced Indian allies. Paris approved and in 1701 Cadillac led a party of 100 Frenchmen to establish a post called Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, naming it after his sponsor the comte de Pontchartrain, Minister of Marine under Louis XIV. In 1704 he was given ownership over the strenuous opposition of officials in New France. An investigation by de Pontchartrain showed Cadillac was a tyrannical profiteer whose mischief hurt the French cause, so Cadillac was removed and sent to faraway New Orleans as governor of Louisiana.^[10]

Ste. Anne de Détroit, founded 1701, is the second oldest continuously operating Catholic parish in the United States; it was the first building erected in Detroit.^[1]

The main business was trading furs with the Indians, using goods supplied from Montreal.^[11] It was the largest French village between Montreal and New Orleans.^[12] Francois Marie Picoté, sieur de Belestre (Montreal 1719–1793), the last French commander at Fort Detroit (1758–1760), surrendered on November 29, 1760 to the British. Control of the area was formally transferred to the British by the Treaty of Paris (1763). New France was renamed Quebec and the settlement became Detroit. Grants of free land attracted families to Detroit, which grew to 800 people in 1765.

The City of Detroit (from Canada Shore), 1872, by A. C. Warren

Demonstrating their independent power, several tribes in the region collaborated in Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763; they overran many smaller forts but could not subdue Detroit.

American control

Detroit was the goal of various American campaigns during the American Revolution, but logistical difficulties in the North American frontier and American Indian allies of Great Britain would keep any armed rebel force from reaching the Detroit area. In the Treaty of Paris (1783), Great Britain ceded territory that included Detroit to the newly recognized United States, though in reality it remained under British control. Great Britain continued to trade with and defend her native allies in the area, and supplied local nations with weapons to harass American settlers and soldiers. The British left in 1796 following the Jay Treaty. In 1794, a Native American alliance, that had received some support and encouragement from the British, was decisively defeated by General Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers near Toledo, Ohio. Wayne negotiated the Treaty of Greenville (1795) with many of these nations, in which tribes ceded the area of Fort Detroit to the United States.

Father Gabriel Richard arrived at Ste. Anne's in 1796. He helped start the school which evolved into the University of Michigan, started primary schools for white boys and girls as well as for Indians, as a territorial representative to U.S. Congress helped establish a road-building project that connected Detroit and Chicago, and brought the first printing press to Michigan which printed the first Michigan newspaper.^[1][2] In 1805, fire destroyed most of the settlement. A river warehouse and brick chimneys of the wooden homes were the sole structures to survive.^[13] Detroit's motto and seal (as on the Flag) reflect this fire.

Detroit in the 1880s.

First incorporation

Detroit was incorporated as a town by the legislature of the Northwest Territory at Chillicothe, Ohio, on January 18, 1802, effective February 1, 1802. Government was administered by a five-person board of trustees and there was no office of mayor. Following this, Ohio became a state and the eastern half of Michigan was attached to the Indiana Territory.

Woodward plan

Before the new territorial government officially began, a fire destroyed nearly all of Detroit on June 11, 1805. The Michigan Territory was established effective June 30, 1805, as a separate territory with Detroit as the capital. The newly appointed governor, William Hull, and the territorial judges (Augustus B. Woodward, Frederick Bates, James Witherell, and John Griffin), constituted the territorial government. They convinced the U.S. Congress to pass an act on April 21, 1806, which authorized them to lay out a town that included all of the old town of Detroit plus an additional 10,000 acres (40 km²) to be used as compensation for persons who lost their house in the fire.^[14]

Augustus Woodward's plan for the city following 1805 fire

After the fire of 1805, Justice Augustus B. Woodward devised a plan similar to Pierre Charles L'Enfant's design for Washington, D.C. Detroit's monumental avenues and traffic circles fan out in a baroque styled radial fashion from Grand Circus Park in the heart of the city's theater district, which facilitates traffic patterns along the city's tree-lined boulevards and parks.^[5] Main thoroughfares radiate outward from the city center like spokes in a wheel.

City incorporation

On September 13, 1806, the territorial government passed an act incorporating the new city of Detroit. The governor appointed Solomon Sibley as mayor. Shortly afterward, Sibley resigned and Elijah Brush was appointed in his stead. The mayor was appointed by the governor and, under the act of incorporation, was able to disapprove legislation passed by the popularly elected council without any recourse for overriding the mayor. Because of this, many felt that the real aim of the governor in incorporating the city was to remove the popularly elected town officers and exert a more direct influence over governance of the city.^[15] This form of government was extremely unpopular, and was repealed on February 4, 1809. However, to prevent resurrection of the popularly elected town government, on September 16, 1810, an act passed repealing all laws pertaining to Michigan that had been passed by the Legislature of the Northwest Territory. This effectively eradicated any trace of legitimacy for the former popularly elected town government.

War of 1812

In the War of 1812, Governor Hull surrendered Detroit to a smaller British force which threatened to allow its Indian allies to kill all American prisoners.^[16] The British had bluffed the Americans into believing there were thousands of native troops. Tecumseh marched his native troops through a clearing and then circled the same troops through the clearing again to make it seem there was a much larger native force. Hull was convicted of cowardice and sentenced to death by a court martial, but received a presidential pardon. The U.S. Army recaptured Detroit in 1813 after the British abandoned it and used it as a base to invade Canada and permanently end the threat of Indian raids on American settlements.^[17] After the British abandoned Detroit, American forces caught up to the escaping British and natives, and killed Tecumseh. Lewis Cass, as territorial governor, on October 24, 1815, restored control of local affairs to the people of Detroit, with the election of a five-person board of trustees and enactment of a charter for the city of Detroit.

A city emerges

Historic Charles Trowbridge House (1826), the city's oldest known structure.

Government under the board of trustees continued until an act of the Territorial Legislature on August 5, 1824, created a Common Council of the City of Detroit. The Council consisted of five aldermen, the mayor, and the recorder. In an act of April 4, 1827, the number of aldermen increased to seven. In 1839, it increased to 14: two aldermen from six wards plus the mayor and recorder. A seventh ward was created in 1848, an eighth in 1849, and the ninth and tenth wards in 1857. Also in 1857, a new city charter provided that the mayor and recorder would no longer sit as members of the council. At this time, the council consisted of 20 members, two aldermen from ten wards. In 1873, a twelfth ward was added and aldermen from an illegally constituted eleventh ward also temporarily sat on the council. In 1875, a properly constituted eleventh ward and a thirteenth ward were added. The city charter of 1883 changed the name of the body to the Board of Aldermen. A few years earlier in 1881, a separately elected ten-person body named Board of Councilmen (also called the City Council), was established. This body was abolished in 1887.

After Detroit rebuilt in the early 19th century, a thriving community soon sprang up, and by the Civil War, over 45,000 people were living in the city,^[18] primarily spread along Jefferson Avenue to the east and Fort Street to the west. As in many major American cities, subsequent redevelopment of the central city through the next 150 years has eliminated all but a handful of the antebellum structures in Detroit. The oldest remaining structures are those built as private residences, including a group in the Corktown neighborhood and another set of houses strung along Jefferson Avenue — notably the Charles Trowbridge House (1826), (the oldest known structure in the city), the Joseph Campau House (1835), the Sibley House (1848), the Beaubien House (1851), and the Moross House (1855). Other extant pre-1860 structures include Fort Wayne (1849); Saints Peter and Paul Church (1848) and Mariner's Church (1849); and early commercial buildings such as those in the Randolph Street Commercial Buildings Historic District, for example.

The main communication medium from the 1830s until the rise of television in the 1950s was the newspaper. Detroit had a large variety of daily papers, meeting the needs of the political parties have different language groups in the city, as well as the needs of readers concerned with news of business, labor, agriculture, literature, local churches, and polite society.^[19]

Civil War era

Monument depicting the city's important role in the Underground Railroad.

Prior to the American Civil War, the city's access to the Canada–US border made it a key stop for runaway slaves along the underground railroad.^[20] The Michigan Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument in Detroit's Campus Martius Park commemorates the state's role in the American Civil War. Thousands of Detroiters formed volunteer regiments, including the 24th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment (part of the legendary Iron Brigade) which fought with distinction and suffered 82% casualties at Gettysburg in 1863. Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying Thank God for Michigan! Following Lincoln's assassination, General George Armstrong Custer delivered a eulogy to the thousands gathered near Campus Martius Park. Custer led the Michigan Brigade during the American Civil War and called them the Wolverines.^[21]

The Detroit race riot of 1863 occurred on March 6, 1863 and was the city's first such incident, as Irish and German Catholics resisted the mandatory draft laws. At the time, it was reported as "the bloodiest day that ever dawned upon Detroit."^[22] The casualties of the day included at least two people dead, and many others injured, mostly African-American, 35 buildings were burned to the ground, and a number of other buildings were damaged by fire.^[23]

Rise of industry and commerce

Over a century of Detroit business leaders have belonged to the Detroit Club founded in 1882. Since 1934, business leaders have also belonged to the Detroit Economic Club.

Detroit's central location in the Great Lakes Region has contributed to its status as a major center for commerce and global trade. As Detroit grew, it emerged as a U.S. transportation hub linking the Great Lakes system of waterways to the Erie Canal and to rail lines. Pharmaceutical firms such as Parke-Davis in the 1870s and the Frederick Stearns Company in the 1890s established a centers between East Jefferson Avenue. Globe Tobacco built a manufacturing facility closer to downtown in 1888.

The rise of manufacturing led to a new class of wealthy industrialists, entrepreneurs, and professionals. Some of these nouveau riche built along East Jefferson, resulting in structures such as the Thomas A. Parker House (1868), the Croul-Palms House (1881), the William H. Wells House (1889), the John N. Bagley House (1889), and the Frederick K. Stearns House (1902).

Woodward Avenue shopping district, 1865.

Detroit began increasingly to expand, and other citizens pushed north of downtown, building houses along Woodward in what was at the time a quiet residential area. The city has many restored historic Victorian structures, notably those in the Brush Park and East Ferry Avenue historic districts. The Elisha Taylor House (1870) and the Hudson-Evans House (1872) are both in Brush Park; the Col. Frank J. Hecker House (1888) and the Charles Lang Freer House (1887) are in the East Ferry Avenue neighborhood. Near the end of the 19th century, apartment living became more acceptable for affluent middle-class families, and upscale apartments, such as the Coronado Apartments (1894), the Verona Apartments (1894), the Palms Apartments (1903), the Davenport Apartments (1905) in the Cass-Davenport Historic District, and the Garden Court Apartments (1915) were constructed to meet the new demand.

These well-to-do late-19th-century residents also funded the construction of a spate of churches, such as the Cass Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church (1883), the First Presbyterian Church (1889), the Trinity Episcopal Church (1890) (built by James E. Scripps), and the First Unitarian Church (1890).

Immigrants in the 19th century

Sweetest Heart of Mary Roman Catholic Church in Detroit.

Detroit has long been a city of immigrants, from the early French and English settlers in the 18th century, through the Irish who settled in the Corktown neighborhood in the 1840s, and the Germans who comprised the largest group. Significant contingents during this period included German and Polish immigrants who settled in Detroit in the 1860-1890s.

Conditions were especially favorable for the Irish Catholics. Vinyard finds that they enjoyed many opportunities and suffered "negligible religious prejudice." They were especially successful in politics, government service, dockyard and construction jobs, and built numerous churches. They funded the migration of relatives from Ireland. They took very active leadership roles in the Democratic Party and labor unions^[24][25]

European immigrants opened businesses and established communities. German immigrants established German-speaking churches, primarily on the east side of the city, including Saint John's-St. Luke's Evangelical Church (1872), St. Joseph Catholic Church (1873), and Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church (1875), as well as social clubs such as the Harmonie Club (1894) and west-side churches such as St. Boniface (1882) and Gethsemane Evangelical Lutheran Church (1891).

Close behind, a wave of Polish immigrants established east-side Roman Catholic parishes such as St. Albertus (1885), Sweetest Heart Of Mary (1893), St. Josaphat's (1901), St. Stanislaus (1911), and St. Thomas the Apostle Catholic Church (1923). The Poles also settled on the west side, founding West Side Dom Polski (1916). The son of Prussian Polish immigrants, Rev. John A. Lemke, born in Detroit on February 10, 1866, was the first American-born Roman Catholic Priest of Polish descent to be ordained in America.^[26] He was baptised at St. Mary Roman Catholic Church (1843), at the corner of St. Antoine and Croghan (Monroe), on February 18, 1866, attended St. Albertus for his primary education, and studied at Detroit College which is now the University of Detroit Mercy where he received a bachelor's degree in 1884; then, after attending St. Mary's in Baltimore, he completed his theological studies at St. Francis Seminary in Monroe, Michigan, and he was ordained by the Bishop John Samuel Foley in 1889.^[26] The Catholics were especially energetic in building churches, schools, orphanages, hospitals and other charitable institutions.^[27]

Nearly nine out of ten Detroiters in 1900 (87%) lived in single-family homes. European immigrants including German, Polish, and Irish ethnics were likely to be home owners in the city. Most immigrants built their own home with the aid of their neighbors, or if still saving the purchase price they rented from fellow ethnics. They used an informal, localized, ethnically controlled housing market that was quite distinct from the professionally operated housing market. Homeownership in Detroit surged in the city's immigrant neighborhoods by 1900.^[28]

Cadillac Motor Car Co. main plant on Cass Avenue, c. 1910

Hazen Pingree

In 1887, John Pridgeon, Jr., a Democrat was elected mayor in a landslide after his Republican opponent endorsed prohibition in the heavily German city. Pridgeon's term was besmirched by multiple scandals involving the Common Council, city commissioners, grand jury investigations, and multiple indictments for bribery and graft. In 1889 Republicans recouped and called for "good government" by nominating a businessman with no political experience, Hazen S. Pingree after a colorful campaign in which Pingree revealed his tolerance by making a circuit of saloons. One of his first projects was simply paving the streets—only four streets were paved, and The Detroit Journal described the rest as "150 miles of rotting, rutted, lumpy, dilapidated paving." In hot weather some stretches oozed pitch and resin and occasionally caught fire from discarded cigar butts.^[29] Warning repeatedly against the dangers of government by the corporations, he launched nationally visible crusades against Detroit's streetcar, gas, electric, and telephone companies. He successfully forced rate reductions that won him widespread popularity. He won public approval for a citizen-owned electric light plant, and became a national spokesman for municipal ownership and close regulation of utilities and street railways. When the nationwide Panic of 1893 pushed the nation into a deep depression (1893–97), he won approval by opening empty lots to garden farming – people called them "Pingree's potato patches." He was a steadfast Republican, and had nothing to do with the Populist Party that had considerable support among labor union members. Pingree added to the old stock Yankee Republican base by making large inroads into the German, Polish and Canadian elements. He was reelected in 1891, 1893 and 1895. Pingree was one of the most influential American mayors in the 1890s – historians now rated him number 4 among all American mayors, and see him as one of the earliest leaders of the Progressive Era.^[30] He supported the gold standard in 1896, and worked hard to carry the city and state for William McKinley over silverite William Jennings Bryan in the intensely competitive 1896 presidential election. McKinley carried the city and state and Pingree was elected governor of Michigan.^[31]

20th century

Highland Park Ford Plant

Henry Ford and the automobile industry

A thriving carriage trade set the stage for the work of Henry Ford, whose automobile Highland Park Ford Plant in 1910 revolutionized not only automobile manufacturing but virtually created the concept the assembly line and mass production. Ford's manufacturing innovations were soon adopted by rival automobile manufacturers, most of whom, and their parts suppliers, were headquartered in the Detroit metropolitan area, establishing the city's fame as the world's car capital.

Corner of Michigan and Griswold, circa 1920

Around the start of the 20th century, entrepreneurs in the Detroit area—notably Henry Ford—forged into production of the automobile, capitalizing on the already-existing machine tool and coach-building industry in the city. Early automotive production is recognizable by structures such as the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant (1904) (a National Historic Landmark), and multiple structures in the surrounding Piquette Avenue Industrial Historic District (including the now-destroyed E-M-F/Studebaker Plant, 1906) and the New Amsterdam Historic District (including the original Cadillac factory, 1905) and small factories such as the Crescent Brass and Pin Company Building (1905).

Automobile assembly and associated manufacturing soon dominated Detroit, and the newly minted automotive magnates built commercial and office buildings such as General Motors Building (1919), the General Motors Research Laboratory (1928), and the Fisher Building (1928).

Ford revolutionized labor relations with his high wage policy that brought in the best workers in Detroit, and made "Fordism" world-famous. He began with a $5 a day minimum wage in 1910, about double the going rate at rival firms. It succeeded in stopping the massive turnover rate, raised productivity, lowered overall labor costs and helped to propel the Model T to industry dominance.^[32] By the 1920s, however, Ford's formula of cheap cars with few options fell behind General Motors, which emphasized upscale quality and variety, and provided financing for car buyers.

The development of the automobile industry led to rising demands for labor, which were filled by huge numbers of newcomers from Europe. Between 1900 and 1930, the city's population soared from 265,000 to over 1.5 million, pushing the boundaries of the city outward. The population boom led to the construction of apartment buildings across the city, aimed at the middle-class auto worker. These include the Somerset Apartments (1922), the Garden Court Apartments (1915), and the Manchester Apartments (1915).

The rise of the automobile also required rethinking transportation within the city. The Chestnut Street-Grand Trunk Railroad bridge (1929) was a result of a grade separation that unsnarled train and automobile traffic. The Fort Street-Pleasant Street and Norfolk & Western Railroad Viaduct (1928) was a product of the same program, routing trucking traffic over the train traffic. And the West Jefferson Avenue-Rouge River Bridge (1922) allowed the Rouge River to be expanded for barge traffic.

Progressive movement

Progressivism was energized starting in the 1890s by upper middle class men and women who felt a civic duty to uplift society by "freeing" it from the tyranny of corrupt politicians who worked hand in hand with unscrupulous saloonkeepers.^[33] The mosat prominent leader was Republican Mayor Hazen S. Pingree.^[34] A representative community leader was automaker Henry M. Leland of the Detroit Citizens League. Supported by Detroit's business, professional, and Protestant religious communities, the League campaigned for a new city charter, an anti-saloon ordinance, and the open shop whereby a worker could get a job even if he did not belong to a labor union.^[35]

Reinhold Niebuhr, a German-American Protestant minister trained at Yale Divinity School became nationally famous as a Detroit minister who attacked the KKK, which was strong among white Protestants in the city.^[36] In an era when Henry Ford was an American icon, Niebuhr attracted national attention by criticizing the auto industry. He preached the Social Gospel, attacking what he considered the brutalization and insecurity of Ford workers.^[37] Niebuhr had moved to the left and was troubled by the demoralizing effects of industrialism on workers. He became an outspoken critic of Ford and allowed union organizers to use his pulpit to expound their message of workers' rights. Niebuhr attacked poor conditions created by the assembly lines and erratic employment practices.^[38]

Niebuhr rejected the prevailing optimism that prevailed in the 1920s. He wrote in his diary:

We went through one of the big automobile factories to-day. . . . The foundry interested me particularly. The heat was terrific. The men seemed weary. Here manual labor is a drudgery and toil is slavery. The men cannot possibly find any satisfaction in their work. They simply work to make a living. Their sweat and their dull pain are part of the price paid for the fine cars we all run. And most of us run the cars without knowing what price is being paid for them. . . . We are all responsible. We all want the things which the factory produces and none of us is sensitive enough to care how much in human values the efficiency of the modern factory costs.".^[39]

The historian Ronald H. Stone thinks that Niebuhr never talked to the assembly line workers (many of his parishioners were skilled craftsmen) but projected feelings onto them after discussions with Rev. Samuel Marquis.^[40] As some studies of assembly line workers have shown, the work may have been dull, but workers had complex motivations and could find ways to make meaning of their experiences; many boasted about their jobs and tried hard to place their sons on the assembly line. Ford tried but failed to control work habits.

Sociologists who interviewed workers concluded that they were more interested in controlling their home lives than their work lives. The Ford solution was welfare capitalism, paying relatively high wages with added benefits, such as vacations and retirement, that reduced turnover and appealed primarily to family men. Link and Link conclude that by tying half a man's wages to the company's profit, Ford managers offered "a highly successful wage incentive plan that simultaneously increased job satisfaction and raised the productivity of labor."^[41][42]

Gilded Age

A 1914 postcard depicting Campus Martius, with the old Detroit City Hall in the far left and the Michigan Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument in the far right.

Campus Martius in 1907.

At the beginning of the 20th century, historic Gilded Age areas such as Brush Park gave rise to even more upscale neighborhoods, including the Boston-Edison, Indian Village, and Palmer Woods. Woodward Avenue neighborhoods (such as the Warren-Prentis Historic District and the Willis-Selden Historic District) became mixed with apartments and commercial buildings. Many architecturally and historically significant churches and cathedrals arose during this period throughout the city's neighborhoods.

Automobile wealth along with educational & technological advancements led to a boom in downtown Detroit business, and the construction of a collection of early 20th century skyscrapers. The most notable of these are the Art Deco National Historic Landmark Guardian Building (1928) and The Fisher Building (1928). Many renowned architects including Albert Kahn, Wirt C. Rowland, and others designed and built a number of the cities skyscrapers and landmarks.

Shopping districts sprang up along Park Avenue, Broadway, and Woodward. In 1881, Joseph Lowthian Hudson opened a small men's clothing store in Detroit. After 10 years he had 8 stores in the midwest and was the most profitable clothing retailer in the country. In 1893, he began construction of J. L. Hudson Department Store at Gratiot and Farmer streets in Detroit. The store grew over the years and a 25-story tower was added in 1928. The final section was a 12-story addition in 1946, giving the entire complex 49 acres (20 ha) of floor space.

Multiple hotels were constructed, including the Fort Shelby Hotel (1916), the Detroit-Leland Hotel (1927), the Royal Palm Hotel (1924), and several others.

Extravagant movie palaces such as the Fox (1928) and the Palms (1925) entertained thousands every day. Public buildings, such as Orchestra Hall (1919), the Detroit Public Library (1921), and the Detroit Institute of Arts (1923) were inspired by the City Beautiful Movement.^[1]

Immigrants in the 20th century

Immigrants opened small neighborhood businesses, often specializing in ethnic food: Grocery store (1922), at 31st and Herbert Street.

The development of the automobile industry led to a massive increase in industrial production in the city. This in turn led to rising demands for labor, which were filled by large waves of immigrants from Europe and Canada. The city's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century, fed largely by this influx who worked in the burgeoning automobile industry and opened neighborhood shops.^[43]

Greek immigration began in the late 1890s, and peaked in 1910-14. They came as peasants from the villages and became peddlers, grocers and restaurateurs, concentrating in the Greektown neighborhood. Keenly attuned to regionalism and political factionalism in Greece, the community in Detroit was split into numerous small groupings. As Americanization proceeded, the family structure became much less patriarchal, while retaining strong affiliations with the Greek Orthodox Church.^[44] A wave of Italian immigrants arrived in 1890-1914.^[45] Most newcomers came from Europe or Canada, but there also were blacks from the South. Ford and Pullman were among the few major employers who welcomed black workers.

Detroit expanded its borders exponentially annexing all or part of the incorporated villages of Woodmere (1905), Delray (1905), Fairview (1907), St. Clair Heights (1918), and Warrendale (1925) as well as thousands of acres of land in the surrounding townships. Nevertheless, there remained several legally separate cities that formed enclaves inside the city limites, such as Hamtramck and Highland Park. By the 1930s, Poles became a large immigrant group with more than 66,000 Poles residing in Detroit at the time.^[46] Between 1900 and 1930, the city's population soared from 265,000 to over 1.5 million. During World War II, there was a large influx of whites from Appalachia and blacks from the rural South. Arabs (especially Palestinians) arrived in large numbers after 1970.

The Jewish community grew to about 34,000 by 1914, with new arrivals from Eastern Europe. There was little anti-Semitism, however there was considerable tension between the older established German Jews, and the poor new immigrants.^[47]

Local politics

Local politics from the 1870 to the 1910s had been influenced by ethnics, especially German Americans and Irish Catholics who controlled the Democratic Party. This changed after 1910 as the old-stock Protestant business leaders, especially from the automobile industry, led a Progressive Era crusade for efficiency, and elected their own men to office, typified by James J. Couzens (mayor, 1919–22, US Senator, 1922–36). The critical change took place in 1918 when the voters changed the Common Council from a 42-man body elected on a partisan basis from 21 wards, to a nine-man unit, elected on a non-partisan basis from the city at-large. The ethnics (especially the Germans) and the Democrats lost their political base.^[48] After 1930, however, the Democratic party rebuilt its strength, formed an alliance with the United Auto Workers union and restored the leadership of the ethnics, as typified by Frank Murphy (mayor 1930-33, governor 1937-39).^[49] Mayors Jerome Cavanagh (1962–70) and Roman Gribbs (1970-74) were the last of the white ethnic mayors, until 2014. The election of Coleman Young (1974–93) as mayor in 1974 brought to power a new generation of black leaders who represented the city's new majority.^[50]

Women in the 20th century

Most young women took jobs before marriage, then quit. Before the growth of high schools after 1900, most women left school after the 8th grade at about age 15. Ciani (2005) shows that type of work they did reflected their ethnicity and marital status. Black mothers were often day labors, usually as domestic servants, because other opportunities were limited. Most mothers receiving pensions were white and sought work only when necessary.^[51]

Nursing became professionalized in the late 19th century, opening a new middle-class career for talented young women of all social backgrounds. The School of Nursing at Detroit's Harper Hospital, begun in 1884, was a national leader. Its graduates worked at the hospital and also in institutions, public health services, as private duty nurses, and volunteered for duty at military hospitals during the Spanish–American War and the two world wars.^[52]

In the early 20th century, the middle-class women of the Detroit Federation of Women's Clubs' (DFWC) promoted civic mindedness within the context of traditional gender roles. Most of them were married to prominent business and professional leaders. Issues of public health, sanitation, and public safety were of vital concern to all families. The DFWC pressured city leaders to provide adequate education and sanitation facilities, safe food handling, and traffic safety. They did not form coalitions with working class or ethnic women, nor labor unions.^[53]

Great Depression

After the 1928 presidential campaign of Catholic Al Smith, the Democrats mobilize large number of Polish and other Catholic ethnics to make their comeback. Although the election for mayor was nonpartisan, the Democrats rallied behind Judge Frank Murphy, who served as mayor 1930-33. The Great Depression was devastating for Detroit, as sales of automobiles plunged and there were large-scale layoffs at all industrial enterprises. Murphy insisted that no one would go hungry, and set up the Mayor's Unemployment Committee that set up relief soup kitchens and potato gardens.^[54] In 1933 Murphy resigned, and Frank Couzens was elected mayor, serving until 1938. He was the son of Republican U.S. Senator James Couzens, who had been mayor in 1919-22. In 1933 the city was in a financial crisis, as tax receipts had plunged and welfare spending had skyrocketed. The city had defaulted on its bond payments and had to use promissory notes (" script") to pay teachers, policemen and other employees. Couzens restored the city's financial credibility by cutting the debt and balancing the budget. He obtained large sums of federal relief money, and upgraded the street-lighting program and the sewage system.^[55]

Labor unions

With the factories came high-profile labor unions in the 1930s such as the United Auto Workers which initiated disputes with manufacturers. The labor activism during those years increased influence of union leaders in the city such as Jimmy Hoffa of the Teamsters and Walter Reuther of the autoworkers.

The unionization process in autos was led by CIO organizers. The strongest response came not from semi-skilled assembly line men, but from the militant leadership of skilled tool and die makers and British and Irish ethnics. They had been complacent during the late 1920s but reacted with extreme militancy to the hardships of the depression.^[56] Following the success of the sit down strikes at General Motors, non-unionized, semi-skilled workers followed suit in numerous plants in 1937. They were supported by the pro-union mood of the city, the New Deal's permissive political climate, and Governor Frank Murphy's pro-labor sympathies. They won many concessions and formed numerous locals outside the auto industry. Ford, however, successfully resisted unions until 1941.^[57]

World War II and the "Arsenal of Democracy"

The Detroit skyline, July 1942.

The entry of the United States into World War II brought tremendous changes to the city. From 1942 to 1945, production of commercial automobiles in the city ceased entirely, as its factories were used instead to construct M5 tanks, jeeps, and B-24 bombers for the Allies.^[58] The Guardian Building was converted into a headquarters for wartime production.^[58] The city made a major contribution to the Allied war effort; a key element of America's Arsenal of Democracy. Historians note that this accolade was "easily and often corrupted to 'arsehole'" by tired Detroiters waiting in lines everywhere.^[59]

The B-24 Liberator, the most produced bomber in history, was used to bomb Germany heavily. Prior to the war, the aviation industry could produce, optimally, one such plane a day at an aircraft plant. By 1943, Ford's plants managed to produce one B-24 an hour at a peak of 600 per month in 24-hour shifts. Many pilots slept on cots waiting for takeoff as the B-24 rolled off the assembly line at Ford's Willow Run facility.^[60]

Racial tension grew rapidly in World War II, as high paying jobs brought in tens of thousands of families, despite severe housing shortages. The historian of Detroit's Poles finds that they saw the blacks as "threatening their jobs, homes, communities, and churches."^[61] An August 1942 Life article, "Detroit is Dynamite", discussed in detail the city's labor and race issues, stating that "the news from Detroit is bad this summer ... The result is a morale situation which is perhaps the worst in the U.S."^[62] Because of the city's importance to the war effort, the article was censored from copies of the magazine sold outside North America.^[63] The long-awaited riot exploded in June 1943, as groups of blacks and whites fought it out. The 3-days of street fighting started on Belle Isle, and killed 25 blacks and 9 whites, wounded 433, and destroyed property valued at $2 million. The U.S. Army was called in to restore order.^[64]

Postwar era

Hudson department store in 1951; it opened in 1911, closed in 1986 and was torn down in 1998

In economic terms, the postwar years 1945-70 brought high levels of prosperity as the automobile industry had its most prosperous quarter-century.^[65]

Although Detroit had a Rapid Transit Commission, it was not popular with the politicians or the public after the strikes of 1946 ended and automobile production resumed. People demanded cars so they could commute from work to spacious houses surrounded by grass instead of riding the trolley to cramped upstairs apartments.^[66] During the war, three expressways were built to support the region's war industries. Furthermore, the wartime model of federal, state, and local governments jointly planning and funding expressways gave a successful model for planning and financing more highways. Progress was slow in 1945-47 because of inflation, steel shortages, and the difficulty of building in built-up areas. by the early 1950s highways were in place, and plans were underway to make Detroit a central hub in the forthcoming Interstate Highway System. The new highways had a funding advantage over mass transit because of the availability of federal highway monies coupled with the availability of matching state money. Ultimately, they were paid for by gasoline taxes, which commuters seldom grumbled about.^[67]

Other sources indicate the replacement of Detroit's large electric streetcar network with buses & highways was much more controversial. In 1930, Detroit had 30 electric streetcar lines over 534 miles of track. In 1941, a streetcar ran on Woodward Avenue every 60 seconds at peak times.^[68] Wartime restrictions on vital war materials such as rubber and gasoline caused particularly heavy use of the streetcar system during the 1940s. However, between the end of the war and 1949, the city discontinued half of its 20 streetcar lines. Five more were discontinued in 1951 — three of them switched abruptly to bus lines during a DSR strike. More closings followed until August 1955, when Mayor Albert Cobo, who promoted freeway construction as the way of the future, urged City Council to sell the city's recently purchased fleet of modern streetcars to Mexico City. It was a controversial move. A newspaper poll showed that Detroiters, by a margin of 3-to-1, opposed the switch to buses. Some even jeered the sunken freeways Cobo championed, dubbing them "Cobo canals." "A lot of people were against the decision... A common complaint was about the sale of the [new] cars, that the city didn't get its money's worth. Of course, the city had an answer for anything. ..." On April 8, 1956, the last streetcar in Detroit rolled down Woodward Avenue. After less than 10 years in service, Detroit's fleet of streamlined streetcars was loaded on railcars and shipped to Mexico City, where they ran for another 30 years.^[69]

The Hudson's department store, the second largest in the nation, realized that the limited parking space at its downtown skyscraper would increasingly be a problem for its customers. The solution in 1954 was to open the Northland Center in nearby Southfield, just beyond the city limits. It was the largest suburban shopping center in the world, and quickly became the main shopping destination for northern and western Detroit, and for much of the suburbs. By 1961 the downtown skyscraper accounted for only half of Hudson's sales; it closed in 1986.^[70] The Hudson's name would latter be discarded all together. The remaining Hudsons were first rebranded as branches of Chicago's flagship Marshall Field's State Street, and later rebranded again as branches of New York City's flagship Macy's Herald Square.

Ethnic whites enjoyed high wages and suburban life styles. Blacks comprised 4% of the auto labor force in 1942, 15% by the war's end; they held their own and were at 16% by 1960. They started in unskilled jobs, making them susceptible to layoffs and to replacement when automation came. The powerful United Auto Workers union championed state and federal civil rights legislation, but was in no hurry to advance blacks in the union hierarchy. Nevertheless, a large well-paid middle class black community emerged; like their white counterparts, they wanted to own single family homes, fought for respectability, and left the blight and crime of the slums as fast as possible for outlying districts and suburbs.^[71]

By 1945, Detroit was running out of space for new factories; tight-knit home-owning neighborhoods rejected the notion of tearing out housing to make room for factories. There was plenty of space out in the suburbs, and that is where the factories had to locate. The proposals of liberal UAW leaders such as Walter Reuther for urban redevelopment did not please the UAW's largely white, conservative membership. The members repeatedly voted for conservative mayoral candidates, such as Republicans Albert Cobo (mayor 1950-57) and Louis Miriani (mayor 1957-62), for they protected white neighborhoods from residential integration.^[72] Home ownership was not just a very large financial investment, it was also a source of identity for men who remembered the hardships and foreclosures of the Great Depression. Sugrue says that the, "Economically vulnerable homeowners feared, above all, that an influx of blacks would imperil their precarious investments."^[73]

As mayor in 1957-62, Louis Miriani was best known for completing many of the large-scale urban renewal projects initiated by the Cobo administration, largely financed by federal money, due to his rejection of implementing a city tax. Miriani also took strong measures to overcome the growing crime rate in Detroit. The United Automobile Workers (UAW), then at the height of its size and power, officially endorsed Miriani for reelection, stressing what they viewed as his conservative "law and order" position. However, while some African-Americans praised Miriani for helping to break down racial divides, other disagreed with the UAW that Miriani did enough.^[74] Historian David Maraniss cites milestones in 1962-64 that marked the city's sharp decline: the failure of a plan to host the Olympics; urban renewal uprooting black neighborhoods; urgently needed police reforms that stalled; and the failure to transform Detroit through the Model Cities and War on Poverty programs. Tensions started building that exploded in the 1967 riot.^[75]

The 1970s brought a worldwide energy crisis with high gasoline prices, and for the first time serious competition from imported automobiles. German Volkswagens and Japanese Toyotas posed a growing threat.

Civil rights and the Great Society

In June 1963, Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. gave a major speech in Detroit that foreshadowed his "I Have a Dream" speech two months later. In Detroit, King was accompanied by Rev. C. L. Franklin, father of American musician, singer, and songwriter Aretha Franklin. Detroit played a major role in the African-American Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, The Model Cities Program was a key component of President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society and War on Poverty. Begun in 1966, it operated five-year-long experiments in 150 cities to develop new antipoverty programs and alternative forms of municipal government. The ambitious federal urban aid program succeeded in fostering a new generation of mostly black urban leaders. Detroit was one of the largest Model Cities projects. Mayor Jerome Cavanagh (Mayor 1962—69) was the only elected official to serve on Johnson's task force. Detroit received widespread acclaim for its leadership in the program, which used $490 million to try to turn a nine-square-mile section of the city (with 134,000 inhabitants) into a model city. The city's political and business elite, and city planners, along with the black middle class, wanted the federal funding to assist the economic growth of the entire city. They sought to protect the central business district property values from nearby slums and to construct new revenue-generating structures. However local community organizers and civil rights activists rallied poor residents in opposition to these plans. They said federal renewal funding should be used to replace deteriorating housing stock, whether with new public housing or low-cost housing built by private developers. The Model City program was terminated in Detroit and nationwide in 1974 after major race riots in most of its target cities. Detroit witnessed growing confrontations between the police and inner city black youth, culminating in the massive 12th Street riot in July 1967. Governor George W. Romney ordered the Michigan National Guard into Detroit, and President Johnson sent in U.S. Army troops. The result was 43 dead, 467 injured, over 7,200 arrests, and more than 2,000 buildings destroyed. Thousands of small businesses closed permanently or relocated to safer neighborhoods, and the affected district lay in ruins for decades.^[76]

Coleman Young, Detroit's first black mayor, explained the long-term impact:

"The heaviest casualty, however, was the city. Detroit's losses went a hell of a lot deeper than the immediate toll of lives and buildings. The riot put Detroit on the fast track to economic desolation, mugging the city and making off with incalculable value in jobs, earnings taxes, corporate taxes, retail dollars, sales taxes, mortgages, interest, property taxes, development dollars, investment dollars, tourism dollars, and plain damn money. The money was carried out in the pockets of the businesses and the white people who fled as fast as they could. The white exodus from Detroit had been prodigiously steady prior to the riot, totally twenty-two thousand in 1966, but afterwards it was frantic. In 1967, with less than half the year remaining after the summer explosion—the outward population migration reached sixty-seven thousand. In 1968 the figure hit eighty-thousand, followed by forty-six thousand in 1969.^[77]

Scholars have produced many studies documenting the fall of Detroit from one of the world's premier industrial cities in 1945 to a much smaller, weaker city in the 21st century, struggling to survive against the loss of industry and population, against crime, corruption and poverty. Boyle also blames the big corporations. He summarizes the scholarly consensus in 2001:

"Detroit was betrayed by a lack of political vision, torn asunder by racial conflict, and devastated by deindustrialization. Detroit's problems peaked in the late 1960s and the 1970s. Since then the city has struggled to recover, to build a new economy and a new polity. However noble the goals, though, these efforts have failed to reverse Detroit's deterioration. Motown remains in the grip of the crisis that began fifty years ago."^[78]

Milliken v. Bradley

On August 18, 1970, the NAACP filed suit against Michigan state officials, including Governor William Milliken, charging de facto public school segregation. The trial began April 6, 1971, and lasted 41 days. The NAACP argued that although schools were not legally segregated, the city of Detroit and its surrounding counties had enacted policies to maintain racial segregation in public schools. The NAACP also suggested a direct relationship between unfair housing practices (such as redlining of certain neighborhoods) and educational segregation, which followed segregated neighborhoods.^[79] District Judge Steven J. Roth held all levels of government accountable for the segregation in his ruling on Milliken v. Bradley. The Sixth Circuit Court affirmed some of the decision, withholding judgment on the relationship of housing inequality with education. The court specified that it was the state's responsibility to integrate across the segregated metropolitan area.^[80]

The governor and other accused officials appealed the decision to the U.S. Supreme Court, which took up the case February 27, 1974.^[79] The subsequent Milliken v. Bradley decision had wide national influence. In a narrow decision, the Court found that schools were a subject of local control and that suburbs could not be forced to solve problems in the city's school district. According to Gary Orfield and Susan E. Eaton in their 1996 book Dismantling Desegregation, the "Supreme Court's failure to examine the housing underpinnings of metropolitan segregation" in Milliken made desegregation "almost impossible" in northern metropolitan areas. "Suburbs were protected from desegregation by the courts ignoring the origin of their racially segregated housing patterns." "Milliken was perhaps the greatest missed opportunity of that period," said Myron Orfield, professor of law and director of the Institute on Metropolitan Opportunity at the University of Minnesota. "Had that gone the other way, it would have opened the door to fixing nearly all of Detroit's current problems."^[81]

John Mogk, a professor of law and an expert in urban planning at Wayne State University in Detroit, says, "Everybody thinks that it was the riots [in 1967] that caused the white families to leave. Some people were leaving at that time but, really, it was after Milliken that you saw mass flight to the suburbs. If the case had gone the other way, it is likely that Detroit would not have experienced the steep decline in its tax base that has occurred since then."^[81]

Supreme Justice William O. Douglas' dissenting opinion in Miliken held that

"there is, so far as the school cases go, no constitutional difference between de facto and de jure segregation. Each school board performs state action for Fourteenth Amendment purposes when it draws the lines that confine it to a given area, when it builds schools at particular sites, or when it allocates students. The creation of the school districts in Metropolitan Detroit either maintained existing segregation or caused additional segregation. Restrictive covenants maintained by state action or inaction build black ghettos...the task of equity is to provide a unitary system for the affected area where, as here, the State washes its hands of its own creations."^[82]

1970s and 1980s

While Detroit was still 55 percent white according to the 1970 census, by 1980 whites only made up 34 percent of the population. The population shift was even more stark considering that Detroit was 83 percent white at the time of the city's all-time population high in 1950. The migration of whites to the suburbs left blacks in control of a city suffering from an inadequate tax base, too few jobs, and swollen welfare rolls.^[83] According to Chafets, "Among the nation’s major cities, Detroit was at or near the top of unemployment, poverty per capita, and infant mortality throughout the 1980s."^[84]

In the 1973 mayoral election the polarization was nearly total, as 92% of blacks voted for Coleman Young, while 91% of the whites voted for former police Commissioner John Nichols, although neither appealed to racial issues during the campaign.^[85] Although Young had emerged from the far left element in Detroit, he moved to the right after his election. He called an ideological truce and won the support of Detroit's economic elite.^[86] The new mayor was energetic in the construction of the Joe Louis Arena, and upgrading the city's mediocre mass transit system. Highly controversial was his using eminent domain to purchase and raze an 465-acre inner-city neighborhood known as Poletown that was home to 3,500 people, mostly Polish property owners, in order to make way for a half-billion dollar General Motors Cadillac assembly plant. Rich argues that he pulled money out of the neighborhood to rehabilitate the downtown business district, because "there were no other options."^[87] Young tried to rein in the city's largely white police department, whose aggressive tactics angered black voters.

Young was an outspoken advocate for federal funding for Detroit construction projects, and his administration saw the completion of the Renaissance Center, Detroit People Mover, and several other Detroit landmarks. During Young's last two terms there he faced angry opposition from neighborhood activists. He usually prevailed, winning re-election by wide margins in 1977, 1981, 1985 and 1989, for a total of 20 years as mayor, based largely on black votes.^[88]

Crime

Young was blamed for failing to stem the crime epidemic that Detroit became notorious for in the 1970s and 1980s. Dozens of violent black street gangs gained control of the city's large drug trade, which began with the heroin epidemic of the 1970s and grew into the even larger crack cocaine epidemic of the 1980s and early 1990s. There were numerous major criminal gangs that were founded in Detroit and dominated the drug trade at various times; most were short-lived. They included The Errol Flynns (east side), Nasty Flynns (later the NF Bangers) and Black Killers and the drug consortiums of the 1980s such as Young Boys Inc., Pony Down, Best Friends, Black Mafia Family and the Chambers Brothers.^[89] The Young Boys were innovative, opening franchises in other cities, using youth too young to be prosecuted, promoting brand names, and unleashing extreme brutality to frighten away rivals.^[90]

Several times during Young's tenure Detroit is named the arson capital of America, and repeatedly the murder capital of America. Often Detroit was listed by FBI crime statistics as the "most dangerous city in America" during his administration. Crime rates in Detroit peaked in 1991 at more than 2,700 violent crimes per 100,000 people.^[91] However, crime continued to be a problem in Detroit long after Young's tenure as mayor ended; according to national statistics the arson rate in Detroit was 6.3 times the national average in 2003 and the murder rate was 5.1 times the national average.^[92] In addition, the majority of Detroit residents, including many blacks, have left the city, leaving a glut of abandoned buildings that have become magnets for drugs, arson, and other crime.

Around Halloween, a traditional day for pranks in late October, Detroit youth went on a rampage called "Devil's Night" in the 1980s. A tradition of light-hearted minor vandalism, such as soaping windows, had emerged in the 1930s, but by the 1980s it had become, said Mayor Coleman, "a vision from hell."^[93] The arson primarily took place in the inner city, but surrounding suburbs were often affected as well. The crimes became increasingly more destructive. Over 800 fires were set in the peak year 1984, overwhelming the city's fire department. Hundreds of vacant homes across the city were set ablaze by arsonists. The fires continued to happen but the number was sharply reduced by razing thousands of abandoned houses that often were used to sell drugs as well—5,000 in 1989-90 alone. Every year the city mobilizes " Angel's Night," with tens of thousands of volunteers patrolling areas at high risk .^[94][95]

Metropolitan region

The Detroit area emerged as a major metropolitan region with construction of an extensive freeway system in the 1950s and 1960s which expanded in the ensuing decades. The 1950s, 60s, and 70s witnessed an expansion of the cultural phenomenon of American muscle cars including Camaro, Mustang, and Charger. Automotive designers and business executives such as Bill Mitchell, Lee Iacocca, and John DeLorean rose to prominence for their contributions. Freeways facilitated movement throughout the region with millions of people taking up residence in the suburbs. A desire for newer housing and schools accelerated migration from the city to the suburbs. Commensurate with the shift of population and jobs to its suburbs, the city has had to adjust its role within the larger metropolitan area. Downtown Detroit has seen a resurgence in the 21st century as a business center and entertainment hub with the opening of three casino resort hotels. In 1940, the city of Detroit held about one-third of the state's population, while the metropolitan region currently holds roughly one-half of the state's population. For the 2010 census, the city of Detroit's population was 713,777, while metropolitan Detroit's combined statistical area had a population of 5,218,852. Through much of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, the city completed significant revitalizations. Immigration continues to play a role in the region's projected growth with the population of Detroit-Ann Arbor-Flint (CMSA) estimated to be 6,191,000 by 2025.^[96]

21st century

GM Plaza and Promenade at the Renaissance Center along the International Riverfront.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the city began to experience a revival, much of it centered in Downtown, Midtown, and New Center. After purchasing and renovating the historic Fox Theatre and Fox Office Centre in 1987, Mike Ilitch and Marian Ilitch moved Little Caesars Pizza's headquarters to Downtown Detroit.^[97] One Detroit Center (1993) arose on the city skyline. Newer downtown residents are predominantly young professionals.^[98][99] The city has three casino resort hotels - MGM Grand Detroit, MotorCity Casino, and Greektown Casino - with one of the larger gaming industry markets in the U.S. New downtown stadiums Comerica Park and Ford Field were constructed for the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions in 2000 and 2002, respectively; this placed the Lions' stadium in the city proper for the first time since 1974. In 2008, the city witnessed grand restorations of the historic Book Cadillac Hotel and the Fort Shelby Hotel.^[100] The city has hosted major sporting events - the 2005 MLB All-Star Game, 2006 Super Bowl XL, 2006 World Series, WrestleMania 23 in 2007 and the NCAA Final Four in April 2009 - all of which prompted many improvements to the area.

The city's International Riverfront is a focus of much development which has complemented similar developments in Windsor, Ontario. In 2007, Detroit completed the first major portions of the River Walk, including miles of parks and fountains. The Renaissance Center received a major renovation in 2004. New developments and revitalizations are a mainstay in the city's plan to enhance its economy through tourism.^[101] Along the river, upscale condominiums are rising, such as Watermark Detroit. Some city limit signs, particularly on the Dearborn border say "Welcome to Detroit, The Renaissance City Founded 1701".^[100][102]

In 2004, Compuware established its world headquarters in downtown Detroit followed by Quicken Loans in 2010. Significant landmarks such as the Fox Theatre, Orchestra Hall Detroit Opera House, and the Gem Theater have been restored and host concerts, musicals, and plays. The Detroit Institute of Arts completed a major renovation and expansion in 2007. Many downtown centers such as Greektown, Cobo Center and Campus Martius Park, draw patrons and host activities.

In September 2008, Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick (who had served for six years) resigned following felony convictions. In 2013, Kilpatrick was convicted on 24 federal felony counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud, and racketeering,^[103] and was sentenced to 28 years in federal prison.^[104]

In July 2013, Michigan state-appointed emergency manager Kevyn Orr asked a federal judge to place the city of Detroit into bankruptcy protection.^[105]

In March 2014 the indebted Detroit Water and Sewerage Department began cutting off water to customers homes with unpaid bills over $150, or if the payment was more than 60 days overdue. As of the 15th of July, more than 15,000 homes had been cut off.^[106]

Timeline

Plan of the Town of Detroit and Fort Lernoult, 1792.

Historical populations
Census	City[107]	Metro[108]	Region[109]
1810	1,650	N/A	N/A
1820	1,422	N/A	N/A
1830	2,222	N/A	N/A
1840	9,102	N/A	N/A
1850	21,019	N/A	N/A
1860	45,619	N/A	N/A
1870	79,577	N/A	N/A
1880	116,340	N/A	N/A
1890	205,877	N/A	N/A
1900	285,704	542,452	664,771
1910	465,766	725,064	867,250
1920	993,678	1,426,704	1,639,006
1930	1,568,662	2,325,739	2,655,395
1940	1,623,452	2,544,287	2,911,681
1950	1,849,568	3,219,256	3,700,490
1960	1,670,144	4,012,607	4,660,480
1970	1,514,063	4,490,902	5,289,766
1980	1,203,368	4,387,783	5,203,269
1990	1,027,974	4,266,654	5,095,695
2000	951,270	4,441,551	5,357,538
2010	713,777	4,296,250	5,218,852
*Estimates [110][111] Metro: Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) Region: Combined Statistical Area (CSA)

For more dates see David Lee Poremba, Detroit in Its World Setting: A Three Hundred Year Chronology, 1701-2001 (2001).

• 1701 - July 24, Antoine de Lamothe Cadillac, with his lieutenant Alphonse de Tonty and a company of 100 men, establishes a trading post on the Detroit River under orders from the French King Louis XIV. They named it Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, in homage to the Count of Pontchartrain, the Royal Minister of Marine.
• 1701 - Ste. Anne de Detroit Catholic Church is the first building built in Detroit, started within two days of Cadillac's landing.
• 1760 - British Major Robert Rogers and a group of his Rogers' Rangers take formal command of Fort Detroit during the French and Indian War.
• 1763 - Pontiac besieges Detroit during Pontiac's Rebellion.
• 1783 - The area south of the Great Lakes (including all of Michigan) is ceded by Great Britain to the United States by the Treaty of Paris that ended the American Revolutionary War. However, the British kept actual possession.
• 1796 - Detroit and all other British posts in Michigan are turned over to the United States under terms of the Jay Treaty. Wayne County, containing Detroit, was established as an administrative division of the Northwest Territory.
• 1802 - February 1, the town of Detroit is incorporated by the territorial legislature.
• 1805 - June 11, a fire burns virtually the entire city. The city's motto, Speramus meliora; resurget cineribus ("We hope for better things, it will rise from the ashes") dates from this event.
• 1806 - September 13, the city of Detroit is incorporated by the territorial governing council.
• 1809 - February 24, the territorial governing council repeals the 1806 incorporation of the city.
• 1812 - August 16, Detroit surrenders without firing a shot to a small British-Indian army under General Isaac Brock in the War of 1812.
• 1813 - September, The British retreat from Detroit, which served as a base for the American invasion of Canada.
• 1815 - October 24, the territorial governing council enacts the charter for the City of Detroit to be governed by a five-person board of trustees.
• 1824 - August 5, the newly formed territorial legislature reorganizes city government, creating the Common Council and office of mayor.
• 1833 - June 14, Blackburn Riot
• 1837 - Detroit becomes capital of the State of Michigan (until 1847).
• 1837 to 1838 - Small bands of self-proclaimed "Patriots", some operating from Detroit, invade Canada in the Patriot War.
• 1863 - Anti-draft and race riot in Detroit.
• 1877 - Detroit College (now the University of Detroit Mercy and U of D Jesuit HS) is founded by the Society of Jesus.
• 1890 - Reforming mayor Hazen Pingree establishes vegetable gardens for the poor, which came to be called Pingree's Potato Patches.
• 1903 - Ford Motor Company is founded by Henry Ford in Detroit.
• 1914 - Detroit Institute of Musical Arts is founded.
• 1929 - Ambassador Bridge construction complete.
• 1930 - Detroit-Windsor Tunnel construction complete.
• 1930 - Detroit's electric streetcar systems peaks in size with 30 lines stretching over 534 miles.^[68]
• 1935 - The Detroit Tigers won the 1935 World Series defeating the Chicago Cubs 4 games to 2. The season was their 35th since they entered the American League in 1901. It was the first World Series championship for the Tigers.
• 1941 - Electric streetcars run on Woodward Avenue every 60 seconds at peak times.^[68]
• 1943 - A race riot, spurred by competition among black and white residents for wartime factory jobs, resulted in 34 deaths.
• 1945 - The Detroit Tigers won the 1945 World Series.
• 1950 - Detroit's population reaches its height at 1.85 million.
• 1956 - Electric streetcar service discontinued on Detroits last line along Woodward Avenue.^[68]
• 1961 - Jerome Cavanagh is elected mayor and launches a series of reforms.
• 1963 - Great March to Freedom.
• 1967 - On July 23, the 12th Street Riot, one of the worst riots in United States history, begins on 12th Street in the predominantly African American inner city (43 killed, 342 injured and 1,400 buildings burned).
• 1968 On Thursday, October 10, 1968 at Busch Memorial Stadium in St. Louis, Missouri the Detroit Tigers won game 7 & won the World Series.
• Focus: HOPE organization is founded by Fr. William Cunningham.
• 1973 - Coleman Young is elected Detroit's first black mayor—a position he would hold for 20 years.^[112]
• 1979–1980 Saddam Hussein makes large donations to a Detroit church and receives a key to the city. Hussein's relationship with Detroit began in 1979, when the Reverend Jacob Yasso of Chaldean Sacred Heart congratulated Hussein on his presidency. Yasso said that in return his church had received $450,000 from the former Iraqi dictator.^{[43][113][114]}
• 1980 - The national economic malaise of the 1970s culminated in Detroit hosting the Republican National Convention which nominated Ronald Reagan who stayed at the Renaissance Center while in Detroit. The Detroit convention kicked off Reagan's campaign to a landslide election.
• 1984 - The Detroit Tigers won the 1984 World Series, defeating the San Diego Padres in five games.
• 1987 - Pope John Paul II visits Detroit.
• 1990 - Nelson Mandela visits Detroit.
• 1992 - November 5, black motorist Malice Green dies after struggling with white policemen Larry Nevers and Walter Budzyn during a traffic stop. The officers were later convicted and sentenced to prison. The convictions were overturned, but the officers were retried and convicted of lesser charges.
• 1996 - In November, Michigan votes to allow the operation of three casinos in Detroit.
• 1997 - In June, the Detroit Red Wings win their first Stanley Cup in 42 years.
• 1999 - The Detroit Tigers play their final baseball game in classic Tiger Stadium, which had opened in 1912. The team relocated to the new Comerica Park downtown in 2000.
• 2002 - The Detroit Lions football team begin play in the new, state-of-the-art Ford Field, returning to downtown Detroit after 27 years in suburban Pontiac.
• 2004 - The "restored" Campus Martius Park opens in downtown Detroit. Featuring an ice-skating rink, it is the focal point of the city's new Winter Blast festival.
• 2005 - Comerica Park hosts Major League Baseball's All-Star Game.
• 2006 - In February, the city hosts Super Bowl XL, and in October, the Detroit Tigers, only three years after having a 119-loss season, defeat the Oakland A's in the American League Championship Series, winning the Penant. They then play in their first World Series since 1984, losing to their 1968 series rivals, the St. Louis Cardinals, in five games.
• 2008 - Kwame Kilpatrick resigned his office as mayor effective September 19, 2008, after pleading guilty to two counts of obstruction of justice and no contest to one count of assaulting and obstructing a police officer.^[115][116] Kilpatrick was succeeded in office on an interim basis by City Council President Kenneth Cockrel, Jr..
• 2009 - Following a special election on May, 2009, businessman and former Detroit Pistons star Dave Bing became the Mayor and was subsequently re-elected to a full term of office.
• 2013 - The state governor declares a financial emergency and appoints an emergency manager for the city^[117]
• Detroit goes bankrupt, the largest ever in American history.^{[118][119][120]}
• In November 2013 The Federal Government of the U.S. gave a $24,200,000 grant to be used to immediately hire 150 Detroit firefighters. From The Detroit News: http://www.detroitnews.com/article/20131129/METRO01/311290027#ixzz2m5f0a9zt

Keys to the city

Ten people have been awarded the key to the city of Detroit:

• Sammy Davis Jr. - Entertainer (awarded 1961 by Mayor Louis Miriani )
• Santa Claus - Given annually at the city's Thanksgiving Day Parade
• James Earl Jones - Actor
• Elmo - Sesame Street character^[121]
• Benjamin Carson - Neurosurgeon
• Jerome Bettis - football star
• Steve Yzerman - received the key to the city after his retirement and having his Hockey jersey retired^[122]
• Mike Ilitch - businessman and sports team owner
• Saddam Hussein - former Iraqi president, given key in 1980 in recognition of large donations to a church.^{[113][114][123][124]}

See also

• Demographic history of Detroit
• Detroit in literature
• List of films set in Detroit
• List of people from Detroit
• List of songs about Detroit
• List of tallest buildings in Detroit
• Music of Detroit
• Northern Cities Shift
• Rum-running in Windsor
• Saginaw Trail

Notes

1. In 1609, Montreal's founder, Samuel de Champlain made one of the worst decisions in the history of counter-productive political acts by a leader and elected to accompany and militarily support a mixed war party of St. Lawrence area Huron's and Algonquian's raiding the into the Mohawk Nation along (ironically, present-day) Lake Champlain.^[4] Champlain killed 2 of 3 Mohawk war chiefs, and wounded a third routing the Iroquois war party, who'd never before encountered arquebus fire arms and during the next 150 years, the French and Iroquois would rarely have peace.^[4] This is considered the first incident in the succession of escalating Amerindian vs. Amerindian internecine frontier wars that became known as the Beaver Wars which climaxed in 1649-1670s with—atypical-for-Amerindians—territorial conquests (and later, assimilation^[4]) of other nations during successive fierce wars which each displaced and diminished other (mainly) Iroquoian peoples one by one—first the populousHuron, then the Tabacco, and Neutral peoples from below Lake Ontario and next shrugging aside the tiny Wenro Nation at the eastern end of Lake Erie, then spent over three years (1653-1656) slugging it out against the larger reputedly tough Erie Confederacy from along the south shore of Lake Erie and thence southerly down through Ohio, along the Allegheny, the Monongehela, and Ohio Valleys into northern Kentucky.
   This consolidation under one political body resulted in a huge check to European settlement of the interior of the present United States and Canada, as territoriality the League of the Iroquois came to dominate the lands along the southern banks of the St. Lawrence River from the tide water shoreline in the north of colonial New England (where they may have originated^[4]) all along the south shore of Lake Ontario west to the southern shores of Eastern Lake Erie (former Erie lands), giving them a western range limit which thence filtered down through central Ohio, along both sides of the Ohio River, through Eastern Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, and Western Virginia into Kentucky. Around 1772, an exhausted Iroquois conquered the plague-struck remnants of the formerly mighty Susquehannocks almost by default, the sudden decline (possibly 90% died ca 1768-71^[4]) in population giving the Iroquois control in the whole Susquehanna River and tributary's valleys (lower New York, Central Pennsylvania, and south to the Potomac River) with influence from southern Pennsylvania into lands down into the Chesapeake Bay basin in Maryland and colonial Virginia.
   As the English consolidated their colonies on the continent and took possession of New Sweden, and New Netherlands mid-century, the Iroquois' political sophistication, military potential, threatening fierceness, and geographic position served to block expansion west below the Great Lakes for both the English and the French. The American Heritage Book of Indians noted as well there were similar white-aiding native Indian on Indian wars in New England, believed to be the most densely populated lands. Both sets of wars however exposed and opened up lands for White settlers to exploit, by forever trespassing onto and settling lands belonging to Indians by treaties. Such encroachments set the table for the Amerindian wars with settlers.
   Subsequently, the Iroquois Confederation became the key military and international power on the continent, round whom everyone stepped carefully and took their probable reactions to account in decisions.^[4] This political reality dominated the settlement of North America for over 100 years, allowing only a trickle of Europeans to begin sparse small settlements coming up the Mississippi. The League could not decide whether to back Britain or the Revolutionaries, making for a mixed result in the American Revolution, until Tories and Iroquois made systematic frontier raids in 1778—triggering the 1779 Sullivan Expedition sent by General Washington that broke the military power of the Iroquois below Canada and setting the stage for a torrent of immigrants to head west through New York and along Lake Erie.

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Further reading

• Bak, Richard (2001). Detroit Across Three Centuries. Thompson Gale. ISBN 1-58536-001-5., narrative history
• Conot, Robert. American Odyssey: A unique history of America told through the life of a great city (1974) 735pp; detailed narrative history.
• Davis, Michael W. R. Detroit's Wartime Industry: Arsenal of Democracy (2007)
• Doody, Colleen. Detroit's Cold War: The Origins of Postwar Conservatism by (University of Illinois Press; 2013) 175 pages; Detroit as a center for an emerging American conservatism and militant anti-communism.
• Gavrilovich, Peter; Bill McGraw (2006). The Detroit Almanac. Detroit Free Press, 3rd ed. ISBN 978-0-937247-48-8.
• Georgakas, Dan, et al. Detroit: I Do Mind Dying: A Study in Urban Revolution (2nd ed. 1999) online edition
• George, Nelson. Where Did Our Love Go?: The Rise and Fall of the Motown Sound (2nd ed. 2007)
• Holli, Melvin G. Reform in Detroit: Hazen S. Pingree and Urban Politics (1969), on 1890s
• LeDuff, Charlie. Detroit: An American Autopsy (2013)
• Maraniss, David. Once in a Great City: A Detroit Story (2015) online review on 1962-64
• Martelle, Scott. Detroit: A Biography (2012) excerpt and text search
• Mirel, Jeffrey. The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1907-81 (2nd ed. 1999)
• Poremba, David Lee (2003). Detroit: A Motor City History. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-2435-2.
• Poremba, David Lee (2001). Detroit in Its World Setting: A Three Hundred Year Chronology, 1701-2001. Wayne State University. ISBN 0-8143-2870-9., Timeline format
• Rich, Wilbur C. Coleman Young and Detroit Politics: From Social Activist to Power Broker (1999)
• Schneider, John C. Detroit and the Problem of Order, 1830-1880: A Geography of Crime, Riot and Policing (1980) online
• Taylor, Paul. "Old Slow Town": Detroit during the Civil War (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2013). x, 248 pp.
• Vachon, Paul. Forgotten Detroit. Arcadia Publishing, 2009. ISBN 0738560871, 9780738560878.
• Woodford, Arthur M. (2001). This is Detroit 1701-2001. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2914-4., 268pp; survey

Ethnic and social history

• *Akhtar, Saima, "Immigrant Island Cities in Industrial Detroit," Journal of Urban History, 41 (March 2015), 175-92.
• Alvarado, Rudolph V., and Sonya Yvette Alvarado. Mexicans and Mexican Americans in Michigan (2003)
• Badaczewski, Dennis. Poles in Michigan (2002)
• Cantor, Judith Levin. Jews in Michigan (2001)
• Capeci Jr., Dominic J., and Martha Wilkerson. Layered Violence: The Detroit Rioters of 1943 (1991) online
• Darden, Joe T., and Richard W. Thomas, eds. Detroit: Race Riots, Racial Conflicts, and Efforts to Bridge the Racial Divide (Michigan State University Press; 2013) 346 pages; post-1967 history
• Delicato, Armando (2005). Italians in Detroit. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-3985-6.
• Denissen, Christian (1987). The Genealogy of French Families of the Detroit River Region, 1701-1936. Detroit Society for Genealogical Research. ISBN 0-943112-02-8.
• Fine, Sidney (2007). Violence in the Model City: The Cavanagh Administration, Race Relations, and the Detroit Riot Of 1967, reprint of 1989 edition. Michigan State University Press.
• Godzak, Roman (2000). Archdiocese of Detroit (Images of America). Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-0797-0.
• Godzak, Roman (2000). Make Straight the Path: A 300 Year Pilgrimage Archdiocese of Detroit. Editions du Signe. ISBN 2-7468-0145-0.
• Hooker, Clarence. Life in the Shadows of the Crystal Palace, 1910-1927: Ford Workers in the Model T Era (1997) online edition
• Meier, August and Rudwick, Elliott. Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (1979) online edition
• Morris-Crowther, Jayne. The Political Activities of Detroit Clubwomen in the 1920s: A Challenge and a Promise (Wayne State University Press; 2013) 217 pages; covers white and black clubs
• Nabeel, Abraham, and Andrew Shryock, eds. Arab Detroit: From Margin to Mainstream (2000); 629pp; analytic and personal accounts
• Rockaway, Robert A. The Jews of Detroit: From the Beginning, 1762-1914 (Wayne State University Press, 1986)
• Shaw, Todd C. Now is the Time! Detroit Black Politics and Grassroots Activism (Duke University Press, 2009)
• Schneider, John C. Detroit and the Problem of Order, 1830-1880: A Geography of Crime, Riot, and Policing (1980) online edition
• Smith, Suzanne E. Dancing in the Street: Motown and the Cultural Politics of Detroit(2001) excerpt and text search; online edition
• Sugrue, Thomas J. The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton U.P. 2005)
• Tentler, Leslie Woodcock (1992). Seasons of Grace: A History of the Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2106-2.
• Vargas, Zaragosa. Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (1999) excerpt and text search
• Vinyard, Jo Ellen. The Irish on the urban frontier: Nineteenth century Detroit, 1850-1880 (1976)
• Vinyard, JoEllen McNergney. For Faith and Fortune: The Education of Catholic Immigrants in Detroit, 1805-1925 (1998) excerpt and text search
• Wilson, Brian. "The Spirit of the Motor City: Three Hundred Years of Religious History in Detroit," Michigan Historical Review (2001) 27#1 pp 21–56 online
• Wolcott, Victoria. Remaking Respectability: African American Women in Interwar Detroit (2001)
• Wolcott, Victoria. "Gendered Perspectives on Detroit History," Michigan Historical Review, (2001) 27#1 pp 75–91 online
• Zunz, Olivier. The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (2000), quantitative new social history excerpt and text search

Primary sources

• Henrickson, Wilma Wood, ed. (1991). Detroit Perspectives: Crossroads and Turning Points. Wayne State University Press., 600pp of primary and secondary 0sources
• Holli, Melvin G, ed. Detroit (1976)
• Young, Coleman, And Lonnie Wheeler. Hard Stuff: The Autobiography of Mayor Coleman Young (1994)

Historic books

• "Detroit", Appleton's Illustrated Hand-Book of American Cities, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1876
• Burton, Clarence M. (2005) [1928?]. "City of Detroit". The city of Detroit, Michigan, 1701-1922. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Library. pp. 1567–1568. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
• Catlin, George B. The Story of Detroit (1923) online
• Farmer, Silas (1889). The history of Detroit and Michigan; or, The metropolis illustrated; a full record of territorial days in Michigan, and the annals of Wayne County.
  • Farmer, Silas (1890). History of Detroit and Wayne County and early Michigan: a chronological cyclopedia of the past and present., Google version; full text
• Fuller, George Newman (2005) [1928?]. Local history of Detroit and Wayne County / edited by George B. Catlin. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Library. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
• Brown, Samuel R. (1817). "Detroit". The Western Gazetteer; or, Emigrant's Directory. Auburn, N.Y: Printed by H.C. Southwick. OCLC 10530489.
• Morse, J. (1797). "D'Etroit". The American Gazetteer. Boston, Massachusetts: At the presses of S. Hall, and Thomas & Andrews.
• Parkman, Francis (1851). The Conspiracy of Pontiac; 1994 reprint. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-8737-2.
• James H. Wellings (1845), Directory of the city of Detroit, Detroit: Printed by Harsha & Willcox
• James H. Wellings (1846), Directory of the city of Detroit, Detroit: A.S. Williams, printer, OCLC 10900751
• Johnston's Detroit City Directory and Advertising Gazetteer of Michigan, James Dale Johnston & Co, 1861, OCLC 81840923
• TIME magazine cover stories

External links

• Detroit News, Rearview Mirror
• Detroit Historical Museums & Society
• HistoryDetroit
• Experience Detroit
• Michigan Historical Society and magazine