Nepenthes mirabilis

"Nepenthes phyllamphora" redirects here. For other uses, see Nepenthes phyllamphora (disambiguation).
Nepenthes mirabilis
An upper pitcher of Nepenthes mirabilis
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Core eudicots
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Nepenthaceae
Genus: Nepenthes
Species: N. mirabilis
Binomial name
Nepenthes mirabilis
(Lour.) Rafarin (1869)[a]
Distribution of N. mirabilis.
Synonyms

Nepenthes mirabilis (/nᵻˈpɛnθiːz mɪˈræbᵻlɪs/; from Latin: mirabilis = wonderful), or the Common Swamp Pitcher-Plant,[12] is a carnivorous plant species. By far the most widespread of all Nepenthes, its range covers continental Southeast Asia and all major islands of the Malay Archipelago (minus the Lesser Sunda Islands and northern Philippines), stretching from China in the north to Australia in the south.[13] The species exhibits great variability throughout its range. One of the more notable varieties, N. mirabilis var. echinostoma, is endemic to Brunei and Sarawak and possesses an extremely wide peristome.[14]

The conservation status of N. mirabilis is listed as Least Concern on the 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[15] In Hong Kong, it is a protected species under Forestry Regulations Cap. 96A.

According to Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek, the pitchers of N. mirabilis are used as toy phallocrypts in New Guinea.

Distribution

Nepenthes mirabilis has by far the widest distribution of any Nepenthes species and is known from the following countries and regions: Australia (Cape York Peninsula), Borneo, Cambodia, Caroline Islands (Palau and Yap), China (Guangdong Province, Hainan,[16][17] Hong Kong, and Macau), D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Java, Laos, Louisiade Archipelago, Maluku Islands, Myanmar, New Guinea, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines (Dinagat and Mindanao), Sulawesi, Sumatra, Thailand, and Vietnam.[13][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] It has also been recorded from many smaller islands, including Babi, Bangka, Banyak Islands, Batu Islands, Bengkalis, Enggano, Ko Lanta, Ko Tarutao, Langkawi, Mendol, Mentawai Islands (North Pagai, Siberut, Sipura, and South Pagai), Meranti Islands (Padang, Rangsang, and Tebing Tinggi), Nias, Penang, Phuket, Riau Islands (Lingga Islands and Riau Archipelago), Rupat,[25] Tawi-Tawi,[26] and possibly Wowoni.[27]

Taxonomy

Nepenthes mirabilis is closely related to N. rowaniae and N. tenax, the only two Nepenthes species endemic to Australia.

Differences between N. mirabilis and N. rowaniae (Clarke & Kruger, 2005)
Character N. mirabilis N. rowaniae
Morphology of leaf blade Acute to rounded Contracted towards the apex, then continuing along the tendril as a narrow, acute, extension
Insertion of tendril to leaf blade Simple Peltate
Pitcher wings Simple, bearing multicellular fringe elements Often flattened at front, forming a T-shape in XS, multicellular fringe elements often present
Leaf blade texture Usually chartaceous Strongly coriaceous
Leaf blade attachment to stem Simple, or rarely decurrent for ⅓ the length of the internode Decurrent for at least ½ the length of the internode, usually more
Gland density in lower portion of pitcher 1600-2500 / cm² Approximately 3600 / cm²
Position of pitcher hip in upper pitchers Mid-way, to lower half Upper quarter
Position of pitcher hip in lower pitchers Lower third to quarter Immediately beneath peristome

In his Carnivorous Plant Database, taxonomist Jan Schlauer treats N. kongkandana as a synonym of N. mirabilis.[28]

Infraspecific taxa

Across its range, N. mirabilis exhibits great variability in terms of pitcher morphology and colour, and it has the most synonyms of all Nepenthes species.[29] The following forms and varieties of N. mirabilis have been described. With the exception of N. mirabilis var. echinostoma and N. mirabilis var. globosa, these taxa are not considered valid today.

N. mirabilis var. echinostoma

An upper pitcher of N. mirabilis var. echinostoma

Nepenthes mirabilis var. echinostoma was discovered by Odoardo Beccari in 1865 and described as a species, N. echinostoma, by Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1873.[12] In 1882, Frederick William Burbidge described this unusual variety in The Gardeners' Chronicle as follows:[12][31]

Beccari's singular N. echinostoma (vide Herb. Kew) is a wonderful thing, as yet unintroduced—indeed, I suppose unseen by any save Beccari ! The mouths of the urns remind one of the deflexed teeth of some gigantic moss of the Hypnoid section.

Nepenthes mirabilis var. echinostoma is the only form of this species that occurs in Brunei. It has also been recorded from parts of Sarawak, but appears to be completely absent from Sabah.[12]

N. mirabilis var. globosa

A lower pitcher of a cultivated N. mirabilis var. globosa
Nepenthes mirabilis pitchers being used to cook rice by the Jarai people of Kon Tum Province, Vietnam

Nepenthes mirabilis var. globosa has been recorded from a single undisclosed Andaman Sea island off Phang Nga and from the Thai mainland near the city of Trang.[13][30][32]

This variety was featured on the cover of the January 2006 issue of the Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society, identified as "Nepenthes sp. from Thailand".[33] The name Nepenthes globosa appeared in print in an article by Shigeo Kurata in the July 2007 issue of the Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society.[8] The same issue also featured an article by Masahiro Tada that referred to the plant as "Nepenthes Viking".[11] Prior to its description by Marcello Catalano in 2010, this taxon was also published under the informal name Nepenthes sp. Phanga Nga in Stewart McPherson's 2009 book, Pitcher Plants of the Old World.[13]

In the horticultural trade, this variety is popularly known as both Nepenthes globosa[13] (/nᵻˈpɛnθiːz ɡloʊˈboʊzə/; from Latin: globosus, "globular") and Nepenthes sp. Viking,[13][34] after the resemblance the pitchers bear to the prow of a Viking ship.[35]

Pitcher infauna

A great number of infaunal organisms have been found in the pitchers of this species. These include the sarcophagid fly Sarcophaga papuensis and the mite Nepenthacarus warreni, which have both been found in Australian populations of the plant.[36][37] Similarly, the mosquitoes Aedes dybasi and Aedes maehleri reside in the pitchers of N. mirabilis on the islands of Palau and Yap, respectively.[38] Both have unusual life histories and morphological traits associated with this habit.[39][40]

The nematode Baujardia mirabilis has been described from N. mirabilis in Thailand. It is not thought to be an accidental; the pitchers of this species appear to be the nematode's natural habitat. The microecosystems in these pitchers were found to be dominated by mosquito larvae, midges, and B. mirabilis. It is speculated that this nematode might have a phoretic relationship with one or more infaunal insect species.[41]

In southern China, tree frogs have been observed in the pitchers of N. mirabilis. The amphibians do not fall prey to the plant, but rather feed on insects that are caught by the pitchers.[42] They are not affected by the acidic digestive juices (which may have a pH as low as 2), likely due to the mucilagenous outer layer of their skin.[43]

The first record of an aquatic fungus living in the pitcher organ of a carnivorous plant came from a specimen of N. mirabilis growing along the Jardine River in Australia. The mycelial fungus was observerd as both free-living in the trap's fluid and attached to chitinous insect remains.[44][45]

The pitchers of N. mirabilis have also been found to harbour a complex community of bacteria.[46] These bacterial communities appear to be more diverse than those found in the pitcher fluid of N. ampullaria and sympatric N. gracilis in Peninsular Malaysia.[47] In N. mirabilis their composition can also differ significantly according to pitcher type, something not seen in the other two species.[47]

Natural hybrids

Nepenthes mirabilis has the greatest number of known natural hybrids of any species in the genus.[13]

Notes

a.^ Nepenthes mirabilis was first described under the Linnaean taxonomic system as Phyllamphora mirabilis by João de Loureiro in 1790. It was then transferred to the genus Nepenthes under the incorrect combination Nepenthes phyllamphora by Carl Ludwig Willdenow in 1805. Most sources[13][14][50][53][63] attribute the earliest publication of the correct binomial—Nepenthes mirabilis—to George Claridge Druce in 1916,[64] but Jan Schlauer's Carnivorous Plant Database records a much earlier publication by Rafarin in 1869.[65]

References

  1. ↑ Danser, B.H. 1928. 1. Nepenthes alata Blanco. [pp. 258–262] In: The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, Série III, 9(3–4): 249–438.
  2. ↑ Cheek, M. & M. Jebb 2013. Typification and redelimitation of Nepenthes alata with notes on the N. alata group, and N. negros sp. nov. from the Philippines. Nordic Journal of Botany 31(5): 616–622. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.2012.00099.x
  3. ↑ Clarke, C. & C.C. Lee 2012. A revision of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) from Gunung Tahan, Peninsular Malaysia. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 64(1): 33–49.
  4. ↑ Schlauer, J. N.d. Nepenthes alata. Carnivorous Plant Database.
  5. ↑ Bailey, F.M. 1881. On a new species of Nepenthes. The Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 5: 185–187.
  6. 1 2 (Latin) Hooker, J.D. 1873. Ordo CLXXV bis. Nepenthaceæ. In: A. de Candolle Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis 17: 90–105.
  7. 1 2 3 4 (Latin) Blume, C.L. 1852. Ord. Nepenthaceae. In: Museum Botanicum Lugduno-Batavum, sive stirpium exoticarum novarum vel minus cognitarum ex vivis aut siccis brevis expositio. Tom. II. Nr. 1. E.J. Brill, Lugduni-Batavorum. pp. 5–10.
  8. 1 2 (Japanese) Kurata, S. 2007. ネペンテス ・ ノート （XIV） — Nepenthes globosa のネーミングについて. Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society 58(3): 76.
  9. ↑ Macfarlane, J.M. 1908. Nepenthaceae. In: A. Engler. Das Pflanzenreich IV, III, Heft 36: 1–91.
  10. ↑ (French) Teysmann, M.J.E. 1859. Énumération des plantes envoyées de Java au jardin botanique de l'Université de Leide. Annales d'horticulture et de botanique, ou Flore des jardins du royaume des Pays-Bas, et histoire des plantes cultivées les plus intéressantes des possessions néerlandaises aux Indes orientales, de l'Amérique et du Japon 2: 133–142.
  11. 1 2 (Japanese) Tada, M. 2007. 日本における Nepenthes Viking の渡来と現状について. Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society 58(3): 75.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Phillipps, A. & A. Lamb 1996. Pitcher-Plants of Borneo. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 McPherson, S.R. 2009. Pitcher Plants of the Old World. 2 volumes. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Clarke, C.M. 1997. Nepenthes of Borneo. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
  15. ↑ Clarke; et al. (2000). "Nepenthes mirabilis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2006. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 12 May 2006.
  16. ↑ Nepenthes mirabilis. Flora of China.
  17. ↑ (Chinese) Yang G., Huang S., Xu S. & Gao Y. 2006. 海南岛野生猪笼草资源调查及其营养成分分析. [The investigation and study on the germplasm resources and growth of the wild common Nepenthes in Hainan.] Chinese Agricultural Science Bulletin 22(11): 440–442. Abstract
  18. ↑ Slack, A. 1979. Nepenthes mirabilis. In: Carnivorous Plants. Ebury Press, London. pp. 79–80.
  19. ↑ McPherson, S.R. & V.B. Amoroso 2011. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of the Philippines. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
  20. ↑ McPherson, S.R. & A. Robinson 2012. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of Borneo. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
  21. ↑ McPherson, S.R. & A. Robinson 2012. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of Sulawesi. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
  22. ↑ McPherson, S.R. & A. Robinson 2012. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of Peninsular Malaysia and Indochina. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
  23. ↑ McPherson, S.R. & A. Robinson 2012. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of Australia and New Guinea. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
  24. ↑ McPherson, S.R. & A. Robinson 2012. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of Sumatra and Java. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
  25. ↑ Clarke, C.M. 2001. Appendix C: Distribution Maps. In: Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu. pp. 299–307.
  26. ↑ Cheek, M. & M. Jebb 2013. Recircumscription of the Nepenthes alata group (Caryophyllales: Nepenthaceae), in the Philippines, with four new species. European Journal of Taxonomy 69: 1–23. doi:10.5852/ejt.2013.69
  27. ↑ (Indonesian) Sunarti, S., A. Hidayat & Rugayah 2008. Keanekaragaman tumbuhan di hutan Pegunungan Waworete, Kecamatan Wawonii Timur, Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. [Plants diversity at the mountain forest of Waworete, East Wawonii District, Wawonii Island, Southeast Sulawesi.] Biodiversitas 9(3): 194–198.
  28. ↑ Schlauer, J. N.d. Nepenthes kongkandana. Carnivorous Plant Database.
  29. ↑ Catalano, M. 2009. Nepenthes. In: Growing Carnivores — an Italian perspective. Prague. pp. 50–57.
  30. 1 2 Catalano, M. 2010. "Nepenthes mirabilis var. globosa M. Catal. var. nov." (PDF). In: Nepenthes della Thailandia: Diario di viaggio. Prague. p. 40.
  31. ↑ Burbidge, F.W. 1882. Notes on the new Nepenthes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, new series, 17(420): 56.
  32. ↑ Mey, F.S. 2014. 'Nepenthes of Indochina', my 2010 ICPS lecture now on Youtube. Strange Fruits: A Garden's Chronicle, February 3, 2014.
  33. ↑ (Japanese) Cover of the January 2006 issue of the Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society. Insectivorous Plant Society.
  34. ↑ Mey, F.S. 2011. Nepenthes mirabilis var. globosa, a popular plant?. Strange Fruits: A Garden's Chronicle, December 24, 2011.
  35. ↑ Guerini, M. 2011. "2010: new species of Carnivorous Plants." (PDF). Associazione Italiana Piante Carnivore.
  36. ↑ Yeates, D.K., H. de Souza Lopes & G.B. Monteith 1989. A commensal sarcophagid (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) in Nepenthes mirabilis (Nepenthaceae) pitchers in Australia. Australian Entomological Magazine 16: 33–39.
  37. ↑ Fashing, N.J. 2002. "Nepenthacarus, a new genus of Histiostomatidae (Acari: Astigmata) inhabiting the pitchers of Nepenthes mirabilis (Lour.) Druce in Far North Queensland, Australia." (PDF). (1.64 MB) Australian Journal of Entomology 41(1): 7–17. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6055.2002.00263.x
  38. ↑ Sota, T. & M. Mogi 2006. Origin of pitcher plant mosquitoes in Aedes (Stegomyia): a molecular phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences. Journal of Medical Entomology 43(5): 795–800. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[795:OOPPMI]2.0.CO;2
  39. ↑ Bohart, R.M. 1956. "Insects of Micronesia. Diptera: Culicidae." (PDF). Insects Micronesia 12(1): 1–85.
  40. ↑ Mogi, M. 2010. Unusual life history traits of Aedes (Stegomyia) mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) inhabiting Nepenthes pitchers. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 103(4): 618–624. doi:10.1603/AN10028
  41. ↑ Bert, W., I.T. De Ley, R. Van Driessche, H. Segers & P. De Ley 2003. "Baujardia mirabilis gen. n., sp. n. from pitcher plants and its phylogenetic position within Panagrolaimidae (Nematoda: Rhabditida)." (PDF). Nematology 5(3): 405–420. doi:10.1163/156854103769224395
  42. ↑ Hua, Y. & H. Li 2005. "Food web and fluid in pitchers of Nepenthes mirabilis in Zhuhai, China." (PDF). Acta Botanica Gallica 152(2): 165–175.
  43. ↑ Hua, Y. & L. Kuizheng 2004. "The Special Relationship Between Nepenthes and Tree Frogs." (PDF). Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 33(1): 23–24.
  44. ↑ Cribbs, A.B. 1987. An aquatic fungus from pitchers of Nepenthes mirabilis. Queensland Naturalist 28: 72–73.
  45. ↑ Schnell, D.E. 1992. Literature Review. Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 21(3): 80–82.
  46. ↑ Yogiara, A. Suwanto & M.T. Suhartono 2006. A complex bacterial community living in pitcher plant fluid. Jurnal Mikrobiologi Indonesia 11(1): 9–14.
  47. 1 2 Chou, L.Y., C.M. Clarke & G.A. Dykes 2014. Bacterial communities associated with the pitcher fluids of three Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) pitcher plant species growing in the wild. Archives of Microbiology 196(10): 709–717. doi:10.1007/s00203-014-1011-1
  48. ↑ Lauffenburger, A. 1995. Guide to Nepenthes Hybrids. OmnisTerra.
  49. ↑ Kurata, S. & M. Toyoshima 1972. Philippine species of Nepenthes. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 26(1): 155–158. Abstract
  50. 1 2 Cheek, M.R. & M.H.P. Jebb 2001. Nepenthaceae. Flora Malesiana 15: 1–157.
  51. ↑ Lowrie, A. 1983. "Sabah Nepenthes Expeditions 1982 & 1983." (PDF). (1.25 MB) Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 12(4): 88–95.
  52. 1 2 3 4 (Italian) Catalano, M. 2010. Nepenthes della Thailandia: Diario di viaggio. Prague.
  53. 1 2 3 Clarke, C.M. 2001. Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
  54. ↑ Fretwell, S. 2013. Back in Borneo to see giant Nepenthes. Part 2: Mt Tambuyukon and Poring. Victorian Carnivorous Plant Society Journal 108: 6–15.
  55. ↑ Rischer, H. 1995. "Observations on the Nepenthes species of Irian Jaya, Part I: Nepenthes insignis Danser." (PDF). (461 KB) Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 24(3): 75–77.
  56. ↑ Lee, C.C. 2007. Re: The most accessible limestone hill of Bau. Carnivorous Plants in the tropics.
  57. 1 2 3 Phillipps, A., A. Lamb & C.C. Lee 2008. Pitcher Plants of Borneo. Second Edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
  58. ↑ Clarke, C.M. & R. Kruger 2005. Nepenthes rowanae (Nepenthaceae), a remarkable species from Cape York, Australia. Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 34(2): 36–41.
  59. 1 2 Mey, F.S., L.H. Truong, D.V. Dai & A.S. Robinson 2011. Nepenthes thorelii, an emended description and novel ecological data resulting from its rediscovery in Tay Ninh, Vietnam. In: McPherson, S.R. New Nepenthes: Volume One. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole. pp. 104–131.
  60. ↑ Bednar, B. 1983. "Nepenthes mirabilis variation." (PDF). (111 KB) Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 12(3): 64.
  61. ↑ N. thorelii rediscovered. Carnivorous Plants in the tropics.
  62. ↑ Mey, F.S. 2012. Virtual Nepenthes herbarium on "Europeana". Strange Fruits: A Garden's Chronicle, December 19, 2012.
  63. ↑ Danser, B.H. 1928. The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, Série III, 9(3–4): 249–438.
  64. ↑ Druce, G. 1916. Nepenthes mirabilis. In: Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles Report 4: 637.
  65. ↑ Schlauer, J. N.d. Nepenthes mirabilis. Carnivorous Plant Database.

Further reading

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