Oslo

This article is about the capital of Norway. For other uses, see Oslo (disambiguation).
Oslo
City

Flag
Seal of Oslo
Motto: Unanimiter et constanter
(Latin: United and constant)
Coordinates: 59°57′N 10°45′E / 59.950°N 10.750°E / 59.950; 10.750Coordinates: 59°57′N 10°45′E / 59.950°N 10.750°E / 59.950; 10.750
Country Norway
District Østlandet
County Oslo
Established 1048
Government
 • Mayor Marianne Borgen (SV)
 • Governing mayor Raymond Johansen (AP)
Area[1]
 • City 480.76 km2 (185.62 sq mi)
 • Land 454.08 km2 (175.32 sq mi)
 • Water 26.68 km2 (10.30 sq mi)
Elevation 23 m (75 ft)
Population (January 1, 2016)[2][3][4]
 • City 658,390
 • Density 1,400/km2 (3,500/sq mi)
 • Urban 942,084
 • Metro[5] 1,717,900
Ethnic groups[6]
 • Norwegian 71.5%
 • Pakistani 3.6%
 • Swedish 2.2%
 • Somali 2.0%
 • Polish 1.7%
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
 • Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code 0001 – 1299[7]
Area code(s) (+47) 00
Website www.oslo.kommune.no
Oslo kommune
Municipality

Coat of arms
Oslo within
Norway

Oslo surrounded by Akershus county
Country Norway
County Oslo
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
 • Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
ISO 3166 code NO-0301
Official language form Neutral
Data from Statistics Norway

Oslo (English pronunciation: /ˈɒzloʊ/, OZ-loh,[8] Norwegian pronunciation: [²uʂlu]  ( listen) or, rarer [²uslu] or [ˈuʂlu]) is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality. Founded in the year 1040, and established as a "kaupstad" or trading place in 1048 by King Harald III, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814 and with Sweden from 1814 to 1905 reduced its influence. After being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of King Christian IV and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality (formannskapsdistrikt) on 1 January 1838. Following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored.

Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway. The city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for maritime industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to many companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the world's largest shipping companies, shipbrokers and maritime insurance brokers. Oslo is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme.

Oslo is considered a global city and ranked "Beta World City" in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network in 2008.[9] It was ranked number one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine.[10] A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo.[11] In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, according to the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU)'s Worldwide Cost of Living study.[12]

As of January 1, 2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390,[2] while the population of the city's urban area was 942,084.[4] The metropolitan area had an estimated population of 1.71 million.[5] The population is currently increasing at record rates, making it the fastest growing major city in Europe.[13] This growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing somewhat faster than the Norwegian population,[14] and in the city proper this is now more than 25% of the total.[15]

Urban region

As of January 1, 2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390.[2] The urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus (municipalities of Asker, Bærum, Røyken, Rælingen, Lørenskog, Nittedal, Skedsmo, Ski, Sørum, Gjerdrum, Oppegård); the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084.[16] The city centre is situated at the end of the Oslofjord, from which point the city sprawls out in three distinct "corridors"—inland north-eastwards, and southwards along both sides of the fjord—which gives the urbanized area a shape reminiscent of an upside-down reclining "Y" (on maps, satellite pictures, or from high above the city).

To the north and east, wide forested hills (Marka) rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality (bykommune) of Oslo and county of Oslo (fylke) are two parts of the same entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated. Of Oslo's total area, 130 km2 (50 sq mi) is built-up and 7 km2 (2.7 sq mi) is agricultural. The open areas within the built-up zone amount to 22 km2 (8.5 sq mi).

The city of Oslo was established as a municipality on 3 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). It was separated from the county of Akershus to become a county of its own in 1842. The rural municipality of Aker was merged with Oslo on 1 January 1948 (and simultaneously transferred from Akershus county to Oslo county). Furthermore, Oslo shares several important functions with Akershus county.

Boroughs

As defined in January 2004 by the city council[17][note]

Boroughs Inhabitants (2015)[18] Area in km² number
Alna 48,770 13.7 12
Bjerke 30,502 7.7 9
Frogner 55,965 8.3 5
Gamle Oslo 49,854 7.5 1
Grorud 27,283 8.2 10
Grünerløkka 54,701 4.8 2
Nordre Aker 49,337 13.6 8
Nordstrand 49,428 16.9 14
Sagene 39,918 3.1 3
St. Hanshaugen 36,218 3.6 4
Stovner 31,669 8.2 11
Søndre Nordstrand 37,913 18.4 15
Ullern 32,124 9 6
Vestre Aker 47,024 16.6 7
Østensjø 49,133 12.2 13
Overall 647,676 151.8

^ The definition has since been revised in the 2015 census.

General information

Toponymy

For full article, see History of Oslo's name
The Royal Palace is the home of the Royal Family

The origin of the name Oslo has been the subject of much debate. It is certainly derived from Old Norse and was—in all probability—originally the name of a large farm at Bjørvika, but the meaning of that name is disputed. Modern linguists generally interpret the original Óslo or Áslo as either "Meadow at the Foot of a Hill" or "Meadow Consecrated to the Gods", with both considered equally likely.[19]

Erroneously, it was once assumed that "Oslo" meant "the mouth of the Lo river", a supposed previous name for the river Alna. However, not only has no evidence been found of a river "Lo" predating the work where Peder Claussøn Friis first proposed this etymology, but the very name is ungrammatical in Norwegian: the correct form would have been Loaros (cf. Nidaros).[20] The name Lo is now believed to be a back-formation arrived at by Friis in support of his [idea about] etymology for Oslo.[21]

City seal

Main article: Seal of Oslo

Oslo is one of very few cities in Norway, besides Bergen and Tønsberg, that does not have a formal coat of arms, but which uses a city seal instead.[22] The seal of Oslo shows the city's patron saint, St. Hallvard, with his attributes, the millstone and arrows, with a naked woman at his feet. He is seated on a throne with lion decorations, which at the time was also commonly used by the Norwegian kings.[23]

History

Oslo timeline (major events)
See also expanded timeline
CA. 1000 AD First traces of buildings. The St. Clement's Church is built.
CA. 1050 AD Oslo marked as a city. Mariakirken is built.
1152/53 AD The Cathedral school is established
1299 AD Oslo becomes the capital of Norway
CA. 1300 Construction of Akershus Fortress starts.
1350 AD Around 3/4 of the population dies under the Black Death.
1352 AD St. Hallvard's Cathedral and the other Sogne Churches are burned to the ground in a major fire
1624 AD Another major fire, the city is rebuilt and renamed Christiania by Christian IV.
1686 AD Fire ruins 1/4 of the city.
1697 AD Domkirken is finished and opened
1716 AD The city and the fortress conquered by Karl XII.
1813 The University is opened.
1825 The foundations of Slottet are finished.
1836 The National Gallery is finished.
1837 Christiania Theatre is opened. Christiania and Aker get a Mayor and kommunestyre.
1854 Oslo gets its first railway, which leads to Eidsvoll.
1866 Stortinget is completed.
1878 City expanded. Frogner, Majorstuen, Torshov, Kampen and Vålerengen are populated and rebuilt. 113 000 citizens.
1892 The first Holmenkollbakken is finished.
1894 The city gets its first electrical track.
1899 Nationaltheateret is finished.
1925 City renamed as Oslo.
1927 The Monolith is raised.
1928 Oslo first Metro line, Majorstuen-Besserud is opened.
1950 Oslo City Hall opened.
1963 The Munch Museum is opened.
1980 Metro line under the city, Oslo Central Station and Nationaltheatret Station opened.
1997 Population over 500 000.
1998 Rikshospitalet opened. New railway line to Gardermoen.
2000 The city celebrates thousand-years jubilee.
2008 Oslo Opera House is opened.
2011 Several buildings in the Regjeringskvartalet are heavily damaged during a terrorist attack, resulting in 8 deaths. 69 people are massacred on the nearby Utøya island.

According to the Norse sagas, Oslo was founded around 1049 by King Harald Hardråde.[24] Recent archaeological research however has uncovered Christian burials which can be dated to prior to AD 1000, evidence of a preceding urban settlement. This called for the celebration of Oslo's millennium in 2000.

It has been regarded as the capital city since the reign of King Haakon V (1299–1319), the first king to reside permanently in the city. He also started the construction of the Akershus Castle. A century later, Norway was the weaker part in a personal union with Denmark, and Oslo's role was reduced to that of provincial administrative centre, with the monarchs residing in Copenhagen. The fact that the University of Oslo was founded as late as 1811 had an adverse effect on the development of the nation.

Oslo was destroyed several times by fire, and after the fourteenth calamity, in 1624, King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway ordered it rebuilt at a new site across the bay, near Akershus Castle and given the name Christiania. Long before this, Christiania had started to establish its stature as a centre of commerce and culture in Norway. The part of the city built starting in 1624 is now often called Kvadraturen because of its orthogonal layout. The last plague outbreak in Oslo occurred in 1654.[25] In 1814 Christiania once more became a real capital when the union with Denmark was dissolved.

Many landmarks were built in the 19th century, including the Royal Palace (1825–1848), Stortinget (the Parliament) (1861–1866), the University, Nationaltheatret and the Stock Exchange. Among the world-famous artists who lived here during this period were Henrik Ibsen and Knut Hamsun (the latter was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature). In 1850, Christiania also overtook Bergen and became the most populous city in the country. In 1877 the city was renamed Kristiania. The original name of Oslo was restored in 1925.[26]

1000–1600

Main article: Old Town, Oslo

Under the reign of King Olav Kyrre, Oslo became a cultural centre for Eastern Norway. St. Hallvard became the city's patron saint and is depicted on the city's seal.

In 1174, Hovedøya Abbey was built. The churches and abbeys became major owners of large tracts of land, which proved important for the city's economic development, especially before the Black Death.

On 25 July 1197 king Sverre and his soldiers attacked Oslo from Hovedøya.[27]

During the Middle Ages, Oslo reached its heights in the reign of King Haakon V. He started the building of Akershus Castle and was also the first king to reside permanently in the city, which helped to make Oslo the capital of Norway.

In the end of the 12th century, Hanseatic traders from Rostock moved into the city and gained major influence in the city. The Black Death came to Norway in 1349 and, like other cities in Europe, the city suffered greatly. The churches' earnings from their land also dropped so much that the Hanseatic traders dominated the city's foreign trade in the 15th century.

17th century

Over the years, fire destroyed major parts of the city many times, as many of the city's buildings were built entirely of wood. After the last fire in 1624, which lasted for three days, King Christian IV decided that the old city should not be rebuilt again. His men built a network of roads in Akershagen near Akershus Castle. He demanded that all citizens should move their shops and workplaces to the newly built city of Christiania.

The transformation of the city went slowly for the first hundred years. Outside the city, near Vaterland and Grønland near Old Town, Oslo, a new, unmanaged part of the city grew up filled with citizens of low class status.

18th century

In the 18th century, after the Great Northern War, the city's economy boomed with shipbuilding and trade. The strong economy transformed Christiania into a trading port.

19th century

In 1814 the former provincial town of Christiania became the capital of the independent Kingdom of Norway, in a personal union with Sweden. Several state institutions were established and the city's role as a capital initiated a period of rapidly increasing population. The government of this new state needed buildings for its expanding administration and institutions. Several important buildings were erected – The Bank of Norway (1828), the Royal Palace (1848), and the Storting (1866).Large areas were incorporated in 1839, 1859 an 1878. The population increased from approximately 10 000 in 1814 to 230 000 in 1900. Christiania expanded its industry from 1840, most importantly around Akerselva. There was a spectacular building boom during the last decades of the 19th century, with many new apartment buildings and renewal of the city center, but the boom collapsed in 1899.

1900–present

The municipality developed new areas such as Ullevål garden city (1918–1926) and Torshov (1917–1925). City Hall was constructed in the former slum area of Vika, from 1931–1950. The municipality of Aker was incorporated into Oslo in 1948, and suburbs were developed, such as Lambertseter (from 1951). Aker Brygge was constructed on the site of the former shipyard Akers Mekaniske Verksted, from 1982–1998.

In the 2011 Norway terror attacks, Oslo was hit by a bomb blast that ripped through the Government quarter, damaging several buildings including the building that houses the Office of the Prime Minister. Eight people were killed in the bomb attack.

Geography

See also: Oslo Graben
A map of the urban areas of Oslo in 2005. The grey area in the middle indicates Oslo's city centre.

Oslo occupies an arc of land at the northernmost end of the Oslofjord. The fjord, which is nearly bisected by the Nesodden peninsula opposite Oslo, lies to the south; in all other directions Oslo is surrounded by green hills and mountains. There are 40 islands within the city limits, the largest being Malmøya (0.56 km2 or 0.22 sq mi), and scores more around the Oslofjord. Oslo has 343 lakes, the largest being Maridalsvannet (3.91 km2 or 1.51 sq mi). This is also a main source of drinking water for large parts of Oslo.

Although Eastern Norway has a number of rivers, none of these flow into the ocean at Oslo. Instead Oslo has two smaller rivers: Akerselva (draining Maridalsvannet, which flows into the fjord in Bjørvika), and Alna. The waterfalls in Akerselva gave power to some of the first modern industry of Norway in the 1840s. Later in the century, the river became the symbol of the stable and consistent economic and social divide of the city into an East End and a West End; the labourers' neighbourhoods lie on both sides of the river, and the divide in reality follows Uelands street a bit further west. River Alna flows through Groruddalen, Oslo's major suburb and industrial area. The highest point is Kirkeberget, at 629 metres (2,064 ft). Although the city's population is small compared to most European capitals, it occupies an unusually large land area, of which two-thirds are protected areas of forests, hills and lakes. Its boundaries encompass many parks and open areas, giving it an airy and green appearance.

Climate

A climate chart of Oslo, Norway. The red line depicts daytime high; blue is nighttime low.

Because of the city's northern latitude, daylight varies greatly, from more than 18 hours in midsummer, when it never gets completely dark at night (no darker than nautical twilight), to around 6 hours in midwinter.[28]

Oslo features a temperate humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). Oslo has warm summers with two out of three days in July that have high temperatures above 20 °C and on average one out of four days reach a maximum above 25 °C.[29] The highest temperature recorded at Blindern in July was 33.4 °C (92 °F) on 21 July 2014.[30] The highest ever recorded at Blindern was 34.2 °C (94 °F) on 3 August 1982. At the "Observatory" downtown Oslo 35 °C (95 °F) was recorded on 21 July 1901.[31] In January, three out of four days are below freezing (0 °C), on average one out of four days is colder than −10 °C.[29] The coldest temperature recorded is −26 °C (−14.8 °F) on 3 and 19 January 1942.

July 2014 was the warmest summer month ever recorded, with a monthly mean temperature at 20.8 °C (69.4 °F), monthly mean maximum temperature 26.8 °C (80.2 °F), monthly mean low was 15.3 °C (59.5 °F).[32] Twenty days in July 2014 had highs above 25 °C (77 °F).[33] The climate table below only includes numbers for the standard period (1961–1990) and only for Blindern observation site (the offices of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute).

Climate data for Oslo-Blindern (1961–1990), Norway
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 12.5
(54.5)		 12.8
(55)		 17.0
(62.6)		 21.8
(71.2)		 27.7
(81.9)		 32.2
(90)		 30.5
(86.9)		 34.2
(93.6)		 24.9
(76.8)		 21.0
(69.8)		 14.4
(57.9)		 12.4
(54.3)		 34.2
(93.6)
Average high °C (°F) −1.8
(28.8)		 −0.9
(30.4)		 3.5
(38.3)		 9.1
(48.4)		 15.8
(60.4)		 20.4
(68.7)		 21.5
(70.7)		 20.1
(68.2)		 15.1
(59.2)		 9.3
(48.7)		 3.2
(37.8)		 −0.5
(31.1)		 9.57
(49.22)
Daily mean °C (°F) −4.3
(24.3)		 −4.0
(24.8)		 −0.2
(31.6)		 4.5
(40.1)		 10.8
(51.4)		 15.2
(59.4)		 16.4
(61.5)		 15.2
(59.4)		 10.8
(51.4)		 6.3
(43.3)		 0.7
(33.3)		 −3.1
(26.4)		 5.69
(42.24)
Average low °C (°F) −6.8
(19.8)		 −6.8
(19.8)		 −3.3
(26.1)		 0.8
(33.4)		 6.5
(43.7)		 10.6
(51.1)		 12.2
(54)		 11.3
(52.3)		 7.5
(45.5)		 3.8
(38.8)		 −1.5
(29.3)		 −5.6
(21.9)		 2.39
(36.31)
Record low °C (°F) −24.3
(−11.7)		 −24.9
(−12.8)		 −20.2
(−4.4)		 −9.8
(14.4)		 −2.7
(27.1)		 1.4
(34.5)		 5.0
(41)		 3.7
(38.7)		 −2.0
(28.4)		 −7.4
(18.7)		 −16.0
(3.2)		 −20.8
(−5.4)		 −24.9
(−12.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 49
(1.93)		 36
(1.42)		 47
(1.85)		 41
(1.61)		 53
(2.09)		 65
(2.56)		 81
(3.19)		 89
(3.5)		 90
(3.54)		 84
(3.31)		 73
(2.87)		 55
(2.17)		 763
(30.04)
Average precipitation days 6 4 6 5 5 7 7 8 7 8 8 6 77
Mean monthly sunshine hours 40 76 126 178 220 250 246 216 144 86 51 35 1,668
Percent possible sunshine 19.2 29.6 34.7 40.9 41.5 44.4 44.0 44.5 37.2 27.1 22.4 18.9 33.7
Source #1: Norwegian Meteorological Institute eklima.met.no
Source #2: Met.no[29] (precipitation > 3 mm)
Climate data for Gardermoen airport 1961-1990, extremes 1954-1998
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 10.8
(51.4)		 12.4
(54.3)		 16.4
(61.5)		 24.3
(75.7)		 27.0
(80.6)		 32.3
(90.1)		 31.5
(88.7)		 32.6
(90.7)		 25.7
(78.3)		 20.3
(68.5)		 13.6
(56.5)		 11.6
(52.9)		 32.6
(90.7)
Average high °C (°F) −3.9
(25)		 −2.8
(27)		 2.4
(36.3)		 7.8
(46)		 15.1
(59.2)		 19.8
(67.6)		 20.7
(69.3)		 19.4
(66.9)		 14.3
(57.7)		 8.3
(46.9)		 1.6
(34.9)		 −2.4
(27.7)		 8.36
(47.04)
Average low °C (°F) −10.7
(12.7)		 −10.9
(12.4)		 −6.5
(20.3)		 −1.6
(29.1)		 3.9
(39)		 8.6
(47.5)		 10.0
(50)		 8.9
(48)		 5.3
(41.5)		 1.6
(34.9)		 −4.4
(24.1)		 −9.2
(15.4)		 −0.42
(31.24)
Record low °C (°F) −31.3
(−24.3)		 −35.5
(−31.9)		 −27.2
(−17)		 −14.8
(5.4)		 −6.0
(21.2)		 −2.5
(27.5)		 1.9
(35.4)		 −1.2
(29.8)		 −6.0
(21.2)		 −16.1
(3)		 −23.6
(−10.5)		 −28.2
(−18.8)		 −35.5
(−31.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 59
(2.32)		 49
(1.93)		 53
(2.09)		 48
(1.89)		 61
(2.4)		 73
(2.87)		 79
(3.11)		 90
(3.54)		 96
(3.78)		 100
(3.94)		 89
(3.5)		 65
(2.56)		 862
(33.93)
Average precipitation days 10.6 8.0 8.6 7.6 8.8 10.2 11.1 11.1 10.9 11.3 11.6 10.0 119.8
Source: met Norway eklima

Parks and recreation areas

Frogner Park

Oslo has a large number of parks and green areas within the city core, as well as outside it.

Oslo (with neighbouring Sandvika-Asker) is built in a horseshoe shape on the shores of the Oslofjord and limited in most directions by hills and forests. As a result, any point within the city is relatively close to the forest. There are two major forests bordering the city: Østmarka (literally "Eastern Forest", on the eastern perimeter of the city), and the very large Nordmarka (literally "Northern Forest", stretching from the northern perimeter of the city deep into the hinterland).

The municipality operates eight public swimming pools.[36] Tøyenbadet is the largest indoor swimming facility in Oslo and one of the few pools in Norway offering a 50-metre main pool. The outdoor pool Frognerbadet also has the 50-metre range.

Cityscape

Holmenkollen ski jump
Bryggetorget

Oslo's cityscape is being redeveloped as a modern city with various access-points, an extensive metro-system with a new financial district and a cultural city. In 2008, an exhibition was held in London presenting the award-winning Oslo Opera House, the urban regeneration scheme of Oslo's seafront, Munch/Stenersen and the new Deichman Library. Most of the buildings in the city and in neighbouring communities are low in height with only the Plaza, Postgirobygget and the highrises at Bjørvika considerably taller.[37]

Architecture

Fjordbyen is a large construction project in the seaside of central Oslo, stretching from Bygdøy in the west to Ormøya in the east. Some areas include: Bjørvika, Aker brygge, Tjuvholmen, the cental station area

Oslo's architecture is very diverse. The architect Carl Frederik Stanley (1769–1805), who was educated in Copenhagen, spent some years in Norway around the turn of the 19th century. He did minor works for wealthy patrons in and around Oslo, but his major achievement was the renovation of the Oslo Katedralskole, completed in 1800. He added a classical portico to the front of an older structure, and a semicircular auditorium that was sequestered by Parliament in 1814 as a temporary place to assemble, now preserved at Norsk Folkemuseum as a national monument.

When Christiania was made capital of Norway in 1814, there were practically no buildings suitable for the many new government institutions. An ambitious building program was initiated, but realised very slowly because of economic constraints. The first major undertaking was the Royal Palace, designed by Hans Linstow and built between 1824 and 1848. Linstow also planned Karl Johans gate, the avenue connecting the Palace and the city, with a monumental square halfway to be surrounded by buildings for University, the Parliament (Storting) and other institutions. Only the university buildings were realised according to this plan. Christian Heinrich Grosch, one of the first architects educated completely within Norway, designed the original building for the Oslo Stock Exchange (1826–1828), the local branch of the Bank of Norway (1828), Christiania Theatre (1836–1837), and the first campus for the University of Oslo (1841–1856). For the university buildings, he sought the assistance of the renowned German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel. German architectural influence persisted in Norway, and many wooden buildings followed the principles of Neoclassicism. In Oslo, the German architect Alexis de Chateauneuf designed Trefoldighetskirken, the first neo-gothic church, completed by von Hanno in 1858.

A number of landmark buildings, particularly in Oslo, were built in the Functionalist style (better known in the US and Britain as Modernist), the first being Skansen restaurant (1925–1927) by Lars Backer, demolished in 1970. Backer also designed the restaurant at Ekeberg, which opened in 1929. Kunstnernes Hus art gallery by Gudolf Blakstad and Herman Munthe-Kaas (1930) still shows the influence of the preceding classicist trend of the 1920s. The redevelopment of Oslo Airport (by the Aviaplan consortium) at Gardermoen, which opened in 1998, was Norway's largest construction project to date.

Politics and government

Oslo city council 2015–2019
Labour Party20 (+0)
Conservative Party19 (−3)
Green Party5 (+4)
Liberal Party4 (−1)
Progress Party 4 (+0)
Socialist Left Party 3 (−1)
Red Party 3 (+1)
Christian Democratic Party 1 (+0)
Total 59[38]

Oslo is the capital of Norway, and as such is the seat of Norway's national government. Most government offices, including that of the Prime Minister, are gathered at Regjeringskvartalet, a cluster of buildings close to the national Parliament, the Storting.

Constituting both a municipality and a county of Norway, the city of Oslo is represented in the Storting by nineteen members of parliament. The Labour Party and the Conservative Party have six each, the Progress Party and the Liberals have two each ; the Socialist Left Party, the Christian Democrats and the Green Party have one each

The combined municipality and county of Oslo has had a parliamentary system of government since 1986. The supreme authority of the city is the City Council (Bystyret), which currently has 59 seats. Representatives are popularly elected every four years. The City Council has five standing committees, each having its own areas of responsibility. The largest parties in the City Council after the 2015-elections are the Labour Party and the Conservatives, with 20 and 19 representatives respectively.

2015 elections

The Mayor of Oslo is the head of the City Council and the highest ranking representative of the city. This used to be the most powerful political position in Oslo, but following the implementation of parliamentarism, the Mayor has had more of a ceremonial role, similar to that of the President of the Storting at the national level. The current Mayor of Oslo is Marianne Borgen.

Since the local elections of 2015, the city government has been a coalition of the Labour Party, the Green Party and the Socialist Left. Based mostly on support from the Red Party, the coalition maintains a workable majority in the City Council.

The Governing Mayor of Oslo is the head of the City government. The post was created with the implementation of parliamentarism in Oslo and is similar to the role of the prime minister at the national level. The current governing mayor is Raymond Johansen.[38][39]

Economy

Office buildings and apartments in Bjørvika, part of the redesign of former dock and industrial land in Oslo known as The Barcode Project.

Oslo has a varied and strong economy and was ranked number one among European large cities in economic potential in the fDi Magazine report European Cities of the Future 2012.[10] It was ranked 2nd in the category of business friendliness, behind Amsterdam.

Oslo is an important centre of maritime knowledge in Europe and is home to approximately 1980 companies and 8,500 employees within the maritime sector. Some of which are the world's largest shipping companies, shipbrokers, and insurance brokers.[40] Det Norske Veritas, headquartered at Høvik outside Oslo, is one of the three major maritime classification societies in the world, with 16.5% of the world fleet to class in its register.[41] The city's port is the largest general cargo port in the country and its leading passenger gateway. Close to 6,000 ships dock at the Port of Oslo annually with a total of 6 million tonnes of cargo and over five million passengers.

The gross domestic product of Oslo totalled NOK268.047 billion ( billion) in 2003, which amounted to 17% of the national GDP.[42] This compares with NOK165.915 billion ( billion) in 1995. The metropolitan area, bar Moss and Drammen, contributed 25% of the national GDP in 2003 and was also responsible for more than one quarter of tax revenues. In comparison, total tax revenues from the oil and gas industry on the Norwegian Continental Shelf amounted to about 16%.[43]

Oslo is one of the most expensive cities in the world.[44] As of 2006, it is ranked tenth according to the Worldwide Cost of Living Survey provided by Mercer Human Resource Consulting[45] and first according to the Economist Intelligence Unit.[44] The reason for this discrepancy is that the EIU omits certain factors from its final index calculation, most notably housing. In the 2015 update[46] of the EIU’s Worldwide Cost of Living survey, Oslo now ranks as the third most expensive city in the world.[47] Although Oslo does have the most expensive housing market in Norway, it is comparably cheaper than other cities on the list in that regard. Meanwhile, prices on goods and services remain some of the highest of any city. Oslo hosts 2654 of the largest companies in Norway. Within the ranking of Europe's largest cities ordered by their number of companies Oslo is in fifth position. A whole group of oil and gas companies is situated in Oslo.

According to a report compiled by Swiss bank UBS in the month of August 2006,[48] Oslo and London were the world's most expensive cities.

Environment

Oslo is a compact city. It is easy to move around by public transportation and you can access rentable city bikes all over the city centre. In 2003, Oslo received The European Sustainable City Award and in 2007 Reader's Digest ranked Oslo as number two on a list of the world's greenest, most liveable cities.[49][50]

Education

The faculty of Law, University of Oslo.
Norwegian School of Management (BI) main building.
University of Oslo Library

Institutions of higher education

The level of education and productivity in the workforce is high in Norway. Nearly half of those with education at tertiary level in Norway live in the Oslo region, placing it among Europe's top three regions in relation to education. In 2008, the total workforce in the greater Oslo region (5 counties) numbered 1,020,000 people. The greater Oslo region has several higher educational institutions and is home to more than 73,000 students. The University of Oslo is the largest institution for higher education in Norway with 27,400 students and 7,028 employees in total.[56]

Culture

Oslo has a large and varied number of cultural attractions, which include several buildings containing artwork from Edvard Munch and various other international artists but also several Norwegian artists. Several world-famous writers have either lived or been born in Oslo. Examples are Knut Hamsun and Henrik Ibsen. The government has recently invested large amounts of money in cultural installations, facilities, buildings and festivals in the City of Oslo. Bygdøy, outside the city centre is the centre for history and the Norwegian Vikings' history. The area contains a large number of parks and seasites and many museums. Examples are the Fram Museum, Vikingskiphuset and the Kon-Tiki Museum. Oslo hosts the annual Oslo Freedom Forum, a conference described by The Economist as "on its way to becoming a human-rights equivalent of the Davos economic forum."[57] Oslo is also known for giving out the Nobel Peace Prize every year.

Museums, galleries

Munch Museum

Oslo houses several major museums and galleries. The Munch Museum contains The Scream and other works by Edvard Munch, who donated all his work to the city after his death.[58] The city council is currently planning a new Munch Museum which is most likely to be built in Bjørvika, in the southeast of the city.[59] The museum will be named Munch/Stenersen.[59] 50 different museums are located around the city.[60]

Folkemuseet is located on the Bygdøy peninsula and is dedicated to Folk art, Folk Dress, Sami culture and the viking culture. The outdoor museum contains 155 authentic old buildings from all parts of Norway, including a Stave Church.[61]

The Vigeland Museum located in the large Frogner Park, is free to access and contains over 212 sculptures by Gustav Vigeland including an obelisk and the Wheel of Life.[62] Another popular sculpture is Sinnataggen, a baby boy stamping his foot in fury. This statue is very well known as an icon in the city.[63] There is also a newer landscaped sculpture park, Ekebergparken Sculpture Park, with works by Norwegian and international artists such as Salvador Dalí.[64]

Historic buildings at Norsk Folkemuseum

The Viking Ship Museum features three Viking ships found at Oseberg, Gokstad and Tune and several other unique items from the Viking age.[65]

The Oslo City Museum holds a permanent exhibition about the people in Oslo and the history of the city.[66]

The Kon-Tiki Museum houses Thor Heyerdahl's Kontiki and Ra2.[67]

The National Museum holds and preserves, exhibits and promotes public knowledge about Norway's most extensive collection of art.[68] The Museum shows permanent exhibitions of works from its own collections but also temporary exhibitions that incorporate work loaned from elsewhere.[68] The National Museums exhibition avenues are the National Gallery, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the National Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts and the National Museum of Architecture.[68] A new National Museum in Oslo will be built in the next 10 years and the building will be located at Vestbanen behind the Nobel Peace Center.[69]

The Nobel Peace Center is an independent organisation opened on 11 June 2005 by the King Harald V as part of the celebrations to mark Norway's centenary as an independent country.[70] The building houses a permanent exhibition, expanding every year when a new Nobel Peace Prize winner is announced, containing information of every winner in history. The building is mainly used as a communication centre.[70]

Music and events

Nobel Peace Center

A large number of festivals are held in Oslo, such as Oslo Jazz festival, a six-day jazz festival which has been held annually in August for the past 25 years.[71] Oslo's biggest rock festival is Øyafestivalen or simply "Øya". It draws about 60,000 people to the Medieval Park east in Oslo and lasts for four days.[72]

The Oslo International Church Music Festival[73] has been held annually since 2000. The Oslo World Music Festival showcases people who are stars in their own country but strangers in Norway. The Oslo Chamber Music Festival is held in August every year and world-class chambers and soloists gather in Oslo to perform at this festival. The Norwegian Wood Rock Festival is held every year in June in Oslo.

The Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is headed by the Institute; the award ceremony is held annually in The City Hall on 10 December.[74] Even though Sami land is far away from the capital, the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History marks the Sami National Day with a series of activities and entertainment.

The World Cup Biathlon in Holmenkollen is held every year and here male and female competitors compete against each other in Sprint, Pursuit and Mass Start disciplines.[75]

Other examples of annual events in Oslo are Desucon, a convention focusing on Japanese culture[76] and Færderseilasen, the world's largest overnight regatta with more than 1100 boats taking part every year.[77]

Rikard Nordraak, composer of the Norwegian national anthem, was born in Oslo in 1842.

Norway's principal orchestra is the Oslo Philharmonic, based at the Oslo Concert Hall since 1977. Although it was founded in 1919, the Oslo Philharmonic can trace its roots to the founding of the Christiania Musikerforening (Christiania Musicians Society) by Edvard Grieg and Johan Svendsen in 1879.[78]

Oslo has hosted the Eurovision Song Contest twice, in Eurovision Song Contest 1986 and 2010.

Performing arts

The National Theatre is the largest theatre in Norway[79]

Oslo houses over 20 theatres, such as the Norwegian Theatre and the National Theatre located at Karl Johan Street. The National Theatre is the largest theatre in Norway and is situated between the royal palace and the parliament building, Stortinget.[79] The names of Ludvig Holberg, Henrik Ibsen and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson are engraved on the façade of the building over the main entrance. This theatre represents the actors and play-writers of the country but the songwriters, singers and dancers are represented in the form of a newly opened Oslo Opera House, situated in Bjørvika. The Opera was opened in 2008 and is a national landmark, designed by the Norwegian architectural firm, Snøhetta. There are two houses, together containing over 2000 seats. The building cost 500 million euro to build and took five years to build and is known for being the first Opera House in the world to let people walk on the roof of the building. The foyer and the roof are also used for concerts as well as the three stages.[80]

Literature

Most great Norwegian authors have lived in Oslo for some period in their life. For instance, Nobel Prize-winning author Sigrid Undset grew up in Oslo, and described her life there in the autobiographical novel Elleve år (1934; translated as The longest years; New York 1971).

The playwright Henrik Ibsen is probably the most famous Norwegian author. Ibsen wrote plays such as Hedda Gabler, Peer Gynt, A Doll's House and The Lady from the Sea. The Ibsen Quotes project completed in 2008 is a work of art consisting of 69 Ibsen quotations in stainless steel lettering which have been set into the granite sidewalks of the city's central streets.[81]

In recent years, novelists like Lars Saabye Christensen, Tove Nilsen, Jo Nesbø and Roy Jacobsen have described the city and its people in their novels. Early 20th-century literature from Oslo include poets Rudolf Nilsen and André Bjerke.

Media

The newspapers Aftenposten, Dagbladet, Verdens Gang, Dagens Næringsliv, Finansavisen, Dagsavisen, Morgenbladet, Vårt Land, Nationen and Klassekampen are published in Oslo. The main office of the national broadcasting company NRK is located at Marienlyst in Oslo, near Majorstuen, and NRK also has regional services via both radio and television. TVNorge (TVNorway) is also located in Oslo, while TV 2 (based in Bergen) and TV3 (based in London) operate branch offices in central Oslo. There is also a variety of specialty publications and smaller media companies. A number of magazines are produced in Oslo. The two dominant companies are Aller Media and Hjemmet Mortensen AB.

Sports

Bislett Stadium during a friendly between Lyn Oslo and Liverpool F.C.

Holmenkollen National Arena and Holmenkollbakken is the country's main biathlon and Nordic skiing venue. It hosts annual world cup tournaments, including the Holmenkollen Ski Festival. It has hosted Biathlon World Championships in 1986, 1990, 2000, 2002 and 2016. FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been hosted in 1930, 1966, 1982 and 2011, as well as the 1952 Winter Olympics.

Oslo is the home of several football clubs in the Norwegian league system. Vålerenga, Lyn, Skeid and Stabæk have won both the Norwegian Premier League and the Norwegian Football Cup, while Mercantile and Frigg have won the cup.

Ullevål Stadion is the home arena for the Norwegian national football team, Vålerenga Fotball and the Football Cup Final. The stadium has previously hosted the finals of the UEFA Women's Championship in 1987 and 1997, and the 2002 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship.[82] Røa IL is Oslo's only team in the women's league, Toppserien. Each year, the international youth football tournament Norway Cup is held on Ekebergsletta and other places in the city.

Bislett Stadium is the city's main track and field venue, and hosts the annual Bislett Games, part of IAAF Diamond League. Bjerke Travbane is the main venue for harness racing in the country. Oslo Spektrum is used for large ice hockey and handball matches. Nordstrand HE and Oppsal IF plays in the women's GRUNDIGligaen in handball, while Bækkelaget HE plays in the men's league. Jordal Amfi, the home of the ice hockey team Vålerenga Ishockey, and Manglerudhallen is the home of Manglerud Star, both of whom play in GET-ligaen. The 1999 IIHF World Championship in ice hockey were held in Oslo, as have three Bandy World Championships, in 1961, 1977 and 1985. The UCI Road World Championships in bicycle road racing were hosted 1993.

Oslo was bidding to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, but later withdrew on 2 October 2014.

Crime

Norway Supreme Court

Oslo Police District is Norway's largest police district with over 2,300 employees. Over 1,700 of those are police officers, nearly 140 police lawyers and 500 civilian employees. Oslo Police District has five police stations located around the city at Grønland, Sentrum, Stovner, Majorstuen and Manglerud. The National Criminal Investigation Service is located in Oslo, which is a Norwegian special police division under the NMJP. PST is also located in the Oslo District. PST is a security agency which was established in 1936 and is one of the non-secret agencies in Norway.

Oslo police stated that the capital is one of Europe's safest, but statistics have showed that crime in Oslo is on the rise, and some media have reported that there are four times as many thefts and robberies in Oslo than in New York City for example.[83][84] According to the Oslo Police, they receive more than 15,000 reports of petty thefts annually. Less than one in a hundred cases get solved.[85]

On 22 July 2011, Oslo was the site of one of two terrorist attacks: the bombing of Oslo government offices.[86]

Transport

Airports around Oslo Airport IATA/ICAO Passengers (2013)
Gardermoen OSL/ENGM 22,956,540
Torp TRF/ENTO 1,856,897
Rygge RYG/ENRY 1,849,294
Oslo Central Station

Oslo has Norway's most extensive public transport system, managed by Ruter.[87] This includes the six-line Oslo Metro,[88] the world's most extensive metro per resident, the six-line Oslo Tramway[89] and the eight-line Oslo Commuter Rail.[90] The tramway operates within the areas close to the city centre, while the metro, which runs underground through the city centre, operates to suburbs further away; this includes two lines that operate to Bærum, and the Ring Line which loops to areas north of the centre.[91] Oslo is also covered by a bus network consisting of 32 city lines, as well as regional buses to the neighboring county of Akershus.[92]

Oslo Central Station acts as the central hub,[93] and offers rail services to most major cities in southern Norway as well as Stockholm and Gothenburg in Sweden.[94] The Airport Express Train operates along the high-speed Gardermoen Line. The Drammen Line runs under the city centre in the Oslo Tunnel.[95] Some of the city islands and the neighbouring municipality of Nesodden are connected by ferry.[96] Daily cruiseferry services operate to Copenhagen and Frederikshavn in Denmark, and to Kiel in Germany.[97]

Many of the motorways pass through the downtown and other parts of the city in tunnels. The construction of the roads is partially supported through a toll ring. The major motorways through Oslo are European Route E6 and E18. There are three beltways, the innermost which are streets and the outermost, Ring 3 which is an expressway.

The main airport serving the city is Gardermoen Airport, located in Ullensaker, 47 kilometres (29 mi) from the city centre of Oslo.[98] It acts as the main international gateway to Norway,[99] and is the sixth-largest domestic airport in Europe.[100] Gardermoen is a hub for Scandinavian Airlines, Norwegian Air Shuttle and Widerøe. Oslo is also served by two secondary airports, which serve some low-cost carriers, such as Ryanair:[101] Rygge Airport[102] and Torp Airport, the latter being 110 kilometres (68 mi) from the city.[103]

Demographics

Population of Oslo from 1801–2006, with yearly data from 1950–2006.
Historical population
YearPop.±%
15002,500—    
18018,931+257.2%
185531,715+255.1%
1890151,239+376.9%
1951434,365+187.2%
1961475,663+9.5%
1971481,548+1.2%
YearPop.±%
1981452,023−6.1%
1991461,644+2.1%
2001508,726+10.2%
2011599,230+17.8%
2014634,463+5.9%
2015647,676+2.1%
Source: Statistics Norway.[16][104]
Number of minorities (1st and 2nd gen.)
in Oslo by country of origin in 2015[105]
Nationality Population (2015)
 Pakistan 22,864
 Poland 15,862
 Sweden 13,911
 Somalia 13,789
 Iraq 7,854
 Sri Lanka 7,272
 Morocco 6,569
 Turkey 6,397
 Iran 6,192
 Vietnam 6,164
 Philippines 5,917
 India 5,246
 Denmark 3,777
 Germany 3,678
 Afghanistan 3,607

The population of Oslo was by 2010 increasing at a record rate of nearly 2% annually (17% over the last 15 years), making it the fastest-growing Scandinavian capital.[106] In 2015, according to Statistics Norway annual report, there were 647,676 permanent residents in the Oslo municipality, of which 628,719 resided in the city proper. There were also 942,084 in the city's urban area[3][16] and an estimated 1.71 million in the Greater Oslo Region, within 100 km (62 mi) of the city centre.[5]

According to the most recent census 432,000 Oslo residents (70.4% of the population) were ethnically Norwegian, an increase of 6% since 2002 (409,000).[107] Oslo has the largest population of immigrants and Norwegians born to immigrant parents in Norway, both in relative and absolute figures. Of Oslo's 624,000 inhabitants, 189,400 were immigrants or born to immigrant parents, representing 30.4 percent of the capital's population. All suburbs in Oslo were above the national average of 14.1 percent. The suburbs with the highest proportions of people of immigrant origin were Søndre Nordstrand, Stovner og Alna, where they formed around 50 percent of the population.[108]

Pakistanis make up the single largest ethnic minority, followed by Swedes, Somalis, and Poles. Other large immigrant groups are people from Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Turkey, Morocco, Iraq and Iran.[109][110][111][112]

In 2012, there were about 48,000 registered Muslims in Oslo, making up about 8% of the population, and about 33,000 registered Roman Catholics.[113] Life stance communities, mainly the Norwegian Humanist Association, had about 18,000 members in 2011.[114]

Religion in Oslo[115]
religion percent
Christianity
  
 70%
Islam
  
 4%
Buddhism
  
 0.5%
Other
  
 26%

In 2013, 40% of Oslo's primary school pupils were registered as having a first language other than the Norwegian or Sami.[116] The western part of the city is predominantly ethnic Norwegian, with several schools having less than 5% pupils with an immigrant background. The eastern part of Oslo is more mixed, with some schools up to 97% immigrant share.[117] Schools are also increasingly divided by ethnicity, with white flight being present in some of the northeastern suburbs of the city.[118][119] In the borough Groruddalen in 2008 for instance, the ethnic Norwegian population decreased by 1,500, while the immigrant population increased by 1,600.[120]

Oslo has numerous religious communities. In 2008, 63% of the population were members of the Church of Norway, lower than the national average of 82%.[121] In 2011, almost 20% of the population were registered in other religious or life stance communities.[114]

Notable residents

International relations

Twin towns – partner cities – and regions

Oslo has cooperation agreements with the following cities/regions:[125]

Oslo was formerly twinned with Madison, Wisconsin, Tel Aviv and Vilnius, but has since abolished the concept of twin cities.

Christmas trees as gifts

Oslo has a tradition of sending a Christmas tree every year to the cities of Washington, D.C.; New York; London; Edinburgh; Rotterdam; Antwerp and Reykjavík.[126] Since 1947, Oslo has sent a 65-to-80-foot-high (20-to-24-metre), 50 to 100-year-old spruce, as an expression of gratitude toward Britain for its support of Norway during World War II.[127][128]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Arealstatistikk for Norge". Kartverket.no. Kartverket. 16 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  2. 1 2 3 "Population, 1 January 2016". Statistics Norway. February 19, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2016.
  3. 1 2 "Population and land area in urban settlements, 1 January 2014". Statistics Norway. April 9, 2015. Retrieved September 6, 2015.
  4. 1 2 "Population and population changes, Q2 2015". Statistics Norway. 20 August 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  5. 1 2 3 "Demografi innenfor ti mil fra Oslo. 1. januar 2010 og endringer 2000–2009. Antall og prosent" [Demographics within a hundred kilometers from Oslo. 1 January 2010 and changes 2000–2009. Number and percent]. Statistics Norway (in Norwegian). Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  6. ↑ "Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents by country of birth1,(the 20 largest groups).Selected municipalities.1 January 2011". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
  7. ↑ "Finn postnummer og adresser i Norge og utlandet".
  8. ↑ "dictionary.com". Retrieved 6 August 2011.
  9. ↑ "GaWC – The World According to GaWC 2008". Lboro.ac.uk. 13 April 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
  10. 1 2 Rachel Craig (13 February 2012). "European Cities and Regions of the Future 2012/13". fDiIntelligence.com. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  11. ↑ "Sydney rockets up the list of the world's most expensive cities". ECA International. 8 June 2011. Archived from the original on 3 October 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
  12. ↑ George Arnett; Chris Michael (14 February 2014). "The world's most expensive cities". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
  13. ↑ "Oslo europamester i vekst – Nyheter – Oslo". Aftenposten.no. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  14. ↑ "Ola og Kari flytter fra innvandrerne – Nyheter – Oslo". Aftenposten.no. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  15. ↑ "Immigration and immigrants". Ssb.no. 1 January 2009. Archived from the original on 2 September 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
  16. 1 2 3 "Population, 1 January 2015". Statistics Norway. February 19, 2015. Retrieved October 13, 2015.
  17. ↑ "Bydeler" [Districts]. Oslo Kommune (in Norwegian). Retrieved September 6, 2015.
  18. ↑ Befolkningen etter bydel, delbydel, grunnkrets, kjønn og alder. Utviklings- og kompetanseetaten, Oslo kommune (avlest 23. oktober 2015)
  19. ↑ cf. Bjorvand, Harald (2008): "Oslo." I: Namn och bygd 2008;Volum 96.
  20. ↑ Jørgensen, Jon G. "Peder Claussøn Friis". In Helle, Knut. Store Norske Leksikon (in Norwegian). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget.
  21. ↑ Alna – elv i Oslo, Store Norske Leksikon (in Norwegian)
  22. ↑ Government – Oslo kommune Archived 14 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
  23. ↑ Heraldry of the World (2010). "Oslo byvåpen". ngw.nl. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  24. ↑ "Inside Oslo : Inside". TripAdvisor. Retrieved 25 March 2010.
  25. ↑ Øivind Larsen. "DNMS.NO : Michael: 2005 : 03/2005 : Book review: Black Death and hard facts". Norwegian Medical Society. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  26. ↑ Bård Alsvik. "Oslo kommune byarkivet (Oslo City Archives)". Oslo Kommune. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
  27. ↑ Leif Gjerland (2014-07-25). "Kongen som angrep Oslo fra Hovedøya". Aftenposten.
  28. ↑ "Oslo Daylight".
  29. 1 2 3 "Blindern (Oslo)". Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
  30. ↑ Trond Lepperød. "VÆRET,HETEBØLGE-Juli-rekord på Blindern: 33,4 varmegrader". Nettavisen. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
  31. ↑ Jostein Mamen. "Dypdykk i klimadatabasen" (PDF). Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
  32. ↑ Met office: Været i Norge – juli 2014: Rekordvarmt i hele Norge, accessed 11 March 2015.
  33. ↑ TV 2 AS. "Aldri målt høyere temperaturer i juli". TV 2. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
  34. ↑ City of Oslo parks (Norwegian)
  35. ↑ City of Oslo parks (Norwegian)
  36. ↑ "Municipal swimming pools". Idrettsetaten.oslo.kommune.no. 16 June 2010. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  37. ↑ "Oslo's developing waterfront, in a photo collage".
  38. 1 2 Resultater valg 2015 NRK (Norwegian)
  39. ↑ Slik blir den nye byregjeringen i Oslo NRK (Norwegian)
  40. ↑ Oslo Teknopol Mal
  41. ↑
  42. ↑ "Regional accounts". Ssb.no. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  43. ↑ "Norwegian Tax Administration Annual Report 2003" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
  44. 1 2 "Oslo 'priciest city in the world'". BBC News. 1 February 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
  45. ↑ "Mercer: Consulting. Outsourcing. Investments". Mercerhr.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  46. ↑ EIU digital solutions. "Worldwide Cost of Living February 2015 – The Economist Intelligence Unit".
  47. ↑ "These are the world's most expensive cities". CNBC. 2 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
  48. ↑ Yahoo! News Archived 11 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
  49. ↑ polymorphing. "Sustainable Cities And Towns Campaign". Sustainable-cities.eu. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
  50. ↑ Kahn, Matthew. "Living Green: Ranking the best (and worst) countries". Reader's Digest Australia. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
  51. ↑ "Norges idrettshøgskole — forskning og høyere utdanning innenfor idrettsvitenskap — NIH". Nih.no. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  52. ↑ "Kunsthøgskolen i Oslo". Khio.no. 1 August 2000. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  53. ↑ "Universitetet for miljø- og biovitenskap — UMB". Umb.no. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  54. ↑ "Internett – Norges veterinærhøgskole". Veths.no. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  55. ↑ "Ska-Wiki – Ska-Wiki". ska-wiki.no.
  56. ↑ "UiO i tall". uio.no. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
  57. ↑ "A crowded field". The Economist. 27 May 2010.
  58. ↑ "Edvard Munch» Edvard Munch Biography 3". Edvardmunch.info. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  59. 1 2 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 29 November 2010.
  60. ↑ Tone:. "Attractions: Museums and sights of Oslo, Norway". Visitoslo.com. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  61. ↑ "Oslo Museums". World66.com. 18 March 2005. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  62. ↑ "Frognerparken and Vigeland Park – Oslo". Cosmotourist. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  63. ↑ "Sinnataggen". Oslosurf.com. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  64. ↑ Ekebergparken Sculpture Park Homepage (English)
  65. ↑ Norway dot com. "The Viking Ship Museum (Vikingskipshuset), Museums, Oslo Norway Directory". Norway.com. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  66. ↑ Norway dot com. "Oslo City Museum, Museums, Oslo Norway Directory". Norway.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  67. ↑ "The Kon-Tiki Museum – Norway official travel guide". visitnorway.com. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  68. 1 2 3 "About the National Museum : Nasjonalmuseet". Nasjonalmuseet.no. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  69. ↑ "The National Museum at Vestbanen : Nasjonalmuseet". Nasjonalmuseet.no. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  70. 1 2 "Nobel Peace Center Opens in Oslo". Norway.org. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  71. ↑ OJF (2011). "Oslo Jazzfestival". oslojazz.no. Archived from the original on 1 July 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  72. ↑ Øya (2011). "Øyafestivalen – News". oyafestivalen.com. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  73. ↑ "Oslo Internasjonale kirkemusikkfestival". Kirkemusikkfestivalen.no. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  74. ↑ NobelPrize.Org (2011). "The Nobel Peace Prize Award Ceremony 2010". nobelprize.org. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  75. ↑ VisitOslo.Com (2011). "World Cup Biathlon – Official Travel & Visitor's Guide to Oslo, Norway". visitoslo.com. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  76. ↑ Desu.No (2011). "Desu". desu.no (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 3 August 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  77. ↑ KNS.No (2011). "Fokus Bank Færderseilasen – KNS". kns.no. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  78. ↑ Oslo-Filharmonien (2011). "Filharmonien". oslofilharmonien.no. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  79. 1 2 "Nationaltheatret – National Theatre: Photos and videos on Google Maps, the WIKI-way". 59.914386,10.7342595: Wiki.worldflicks.org. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  80. ↑ "7 of the Best Tourist Attractions in Oslo, Norway". Globe Tales. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  81. ↑ Økland, Ingunn (10 September 2008). "Ibsen som jålete graffiti". Aftenposten (in Norwegian).
  82. ↑ Ullevaal Stadion. "Historikk" (in Norwegian). Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  83. ↑ Redaksjon (7 March 2008). "Fire ganger mer krim i Oslo enn i New York". Osloby.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 28 August 2012.
  84. ↑ Oslo, Politidistrikt. "Kriminaliteten i Oslo". Politi.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 25 August 2012.
  85. ↑ Norsk Telegrambyrå (9 October 2012). "Oslo har like mange lommetyverier som Berlin". Vg.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 9 October 2012.
  86. ↑ "7 Dead in Oslo Explosion; 80 Killed in Shooting at Camp". PBS. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
  87. ↑ "Om Ruter" (in Norwegian). Ruter. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  88. ↑ "T-banen – forstadsbane og storbymetro" (in Norwegian). Ruter. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  89. ↑ "Trikk" (in Norwegian). Ruter. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  90. ↑ "Network map commuter trains" (PDF) (in Norwegian). Norwegian State Railways. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  91. ↑ "T-baneringen" (in Norwegian). Oslo Package 2. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  92. ↑ "City Bus Network Map" (PDF). 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2013.
  93. ↑ "Oslo S bygges om for 2.9 milliarder kroner" (in Norwegian). Rom Eiendom. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
  94. ↑ "Network map" (PDF) (in Norwegian). Norwegian State Railways. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  95. ↑ Holøs, Bjørn (1990). Stasjoner i sentrum (in Norwegian). Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlagg. p. 182. ISBN 82-05-19082-8.
  96. ↑ "Båt til jobb og skole, eller bad og utflukt" (in Norwegian). Ruter. Archived from the original on 11 December 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  97. ↑ "Passasjer/turist" (in Norwegian). Port of Oslo. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  98. ↑ "Administration". Oslo Lufthavn. Archived from the original on 24 January 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
  99. ↑ "Market". Oslo Lufthavn. Archived from the original on 24 November 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
  100. ↑ "Economic crisis stops air transport growth" (PDF). Eurostat. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
  101. ↑ "Rygge-London for én krone". Akershus Amtstidende (in Norwegian). 17 July 2009.
  102. ↑ "Information about Moss Airport Rygge". Rygge Sivile Lufthavn. Archived from the original on 28 October 2010. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
  103. ↑ Sandefjord Lufthavn. "How do I get to Sandefjord Airport Torp?". Archived from the original on 16 March 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
  104. ↑ "Projected population – Statistics Norway". Statbank.ssb.no. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
  105. ↑ "Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents, by immigration category, country background and percentages of the population". ssb.no. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
  106. ↑ Ole Kristian Nordengen Hanne Waaler Lier Pål V. Hagesæther. "Om 15 år kan det bo 100 000 flere i Oslo". Aftenposten.no. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  107. ↑ utviklings-og-kompetanseetaten.oslo.kommune.no
  108. ↑ Kristoffer Fredriksen: Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents, 1 January 2013 SSB, January 2013
  109. ↑ (Norwegian) 25 prosent av alle som bor i Oslo er innvandrere – Nyheter – Oslo – Aftenposten.no
  110. ↑ "Polakker den største innvandrergruppen" (in Norwegian). Ssb.no. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  111. ↑ "Tabell 11 Innvandrere og norskfødte med innvandrerforeldre, etter landbakgrunn (de 20 største gruppene). Utvalgte kommuner. 1. januar 2009" (in Norwegian). Ssb.no. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
  112. ↑ Folkebibl.no (Norwegian)
  113. ↑ Andreas Slettholm: Nå er det flere katolikker enn muslimer i Norge Aftenposten, 3 December 2012
  114. 1 2 1 av 5 osloborgere tilhører et tros- eller livssynssamfunn utenfor Den norske kirke Utviklings- og kompetanseetaten, Oslo kommune. (in Norwegian) Retrieved 7 December 2012
  115. ↑ Statistics Norway – Church of Norway.
  116. ↑ Oslo kommune, Undervisningsetaten (4 January 2013). "Minoritetsspråklige elever i Osloskolen 2012/2013" (PDF). Undervisningsetaten.
  117. ↑ Avhilde Lundgaard  . "Foreldre flytter barna til "hvitere" skoler – Nyheter – Innenriks". Aftenposten.no. Retrieved 25 March 2010.
  118. ↑ Bredeveien, Jo Moen (2 June 2009). "Rømmer til hvitere skoler". Dagsavisen. Archived from the original on 8 December 2009.
  119. ↑ Lundgaard, Hilde (22 August 2009). "Foreldre flytter barna til "hvitere" skoler". Aftenposten.
  120. ↑ Slettholm, Andreas (15 December 2009). "Ola og Kari flytter fra innvandrerne". Aftenposten.
  121. ↑ Et mangfold av tro og livssyn Statistics Norway. Retrieved 7 December 2012
  122. ↑ Haverkamp, Frode; Gude, Hans Fredrik (January 1992). Hans Gude (in Norwegian). Oslo: Aschehoug. p. 59. ISBN 82-03-17072-2. OCLC 29047091.
  123. ↑ Council of Europe (2011). "Intercultural city: Oslo, Norway". coe.int. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  124. ↑ Wood, Phil (2009). "Intercultural Cities" (PDF). Council of Europe. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
  125. ↑ "Co-operating cities and regions". Oslo.kommune.no. Oslo Kommune. 12 February 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  126. ↑ Juletrær til utland Ordføreren, Oslo kommune (Municipality of Oslo Website, Mare's office), published november 2013, accessed 7 April 2014.
  127. ↑ Her tennes juletreet i London, VG, 3 December 2009.
  128. ↑ Ina Louise Stovner. "juletre". Store norske leksikon. Retrieved 2016-02-12.

Further reading

Published in the 19th century
Published in the 20th century

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oslo.
Look up oslo in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Oslo.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/4/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.